Planning at the National Endowment for the Arts: A Review of the Plans and Planning Documents, 1978–1984

This article investigates revenue diversification in order to verify if it is advantageous for nonprofit creative entrepreneurs to improve their price and product marketing, fundraising, and other financing. The article also focuses on U.S. symphony orchestras that cope with Cost Disease (Baumol and Bowen 1965) thanks to the revenue diversification. Today these creative nonprofits are targeting several stakeholders and rent holders. In this article, they are clustered according to performances of their marketing, fundraising, and investing. As seen in 2008, U.S. symphony managers diversified and maximized total revenues of contributions, program service, interests, dividends, sales of assets, special fundraising events, etc. Thanks to the Ward cluster analysis (1963), two main profiles emerge: the Fundraiser and the Marketing Expert. The Marketing Expert is the most developed profile, but contributions are always exceeding program service revenues, and fundraising is more profitable than marketing.     

Routes and determinants of leaving home: the city of Gothenburg, 1915–1943

This paper deals with the home-leaving of young adults in Gothenburg, Sweden, in the period 1915–1943. We used individual-level panel data from population registers and poll-tax records, taking a competing risk design for the analysis of the determinants of leaving home to marry, or for non-familial living. We found a transitional, marriage-driven pattern of leaving home that neither fits the old context of life cycle service, nor the alternative modern routes out of the parental home into unmarried householdship. Young adults typically stayed at home until they married, although some moved out to temporary non-familial living first. Non-familial living consisted mainly of lodging in another household, but working outside it, which in a way was a forerunner of the modern pattern, in sharp contrast with the remnant of preindustrial times: the flow from rural areas into Gothenburg of teenage women immigrants to become residential domestic servants. Interestingly, we found that the main determinants of home-leaving in studies of modern-day populations were equally important in the population of Gothenburg in 1915–1943. For both young men and young women, having their own resources (employment, earnings) was positively associated with the likelihood of leaving the parental home. We also found clear gender differences. A higher level of human capital of the father was associated with later home-leaving to marry for sons, and earlier leaving for non-familial living for daughters. Lower levels of household income, or the presence of minor siblings or a widowed parent were push factors for non-familial living for daughters. We found no similar push factors for sons.     

Immigrants,their children,and theories of assimilation: Family structure in the United States, 1880–1970

This research employs United States census data from 1880 to 1970 to assess the influence of ethnicity and generation on the family structure of Mexican, Irish, Swedish, Italian, Polish, and native white children. Using evidence for three generations, it tests two theories, linear assimilation and segmented assimilation. Assimilation theory makes no special claims for ethnic effects, but segmented assimilation proposes that ethnicity influences the incorporation of immigrant-origin children into American society. We find few consistent ethnic effects on the probability of family type. Our principal finding is that migration itself, common to all groups, has similar consequences for all; these are revealed in generational changes in family structure. The historical periods of open immigration do differ from the contemporary period, which implies that immigration policy affects family structure. The results disconfirm segmented assimilation theory's emphasis on ethnicity in family structure, and confirm aspects of linear assimilation theory. They point to the salience of structural factors resulting from the migration process and policy, rather than ethnicity, in the evolution of family form among immigrant-origin persons.     

Homicide Trends in Finland and Estonia in 1880–1940: Consequences of the Demographic,Social and Political Effects of Industrialization

While in western Europe and Scandinavia homicide rates reached their all time low during the period of industrialization, in Finland and Estonia they increased considerably. The rapid growth of criminal violence during the late 1800s and first half of the 1900s in these two countries seems to have been the result of interaction of several factors, partly non-simultaneous and unrelated. They do not seem to have been identical either, although the underlying equation was the same: the quick social and economic change following industrialization, and the modernisation of agriculture, the pressures it put especially on the youth in the form of uncertain prospects for the future and a new competition-oriented set of values, connected with the authoritarian political system of Russian Empire, which prevented necessary political reforms and left behind a legacy of social thinking idealizing violence as a political and social instrument. A legacy, which affected large parts of Finnish and Estonian population still for years after the czarist system itself already passed into history. The criminal violence arisen from the equation, however, had quite a different face on the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland from that on the southern one. In Finland the violence was centered in the new forest industrial communities, in Estonia again among the landless population of the countryside.     

In Her Own Voice: Presentations on Women,Crime, and Criminal Justice at American Society of Criminology Meetings From 1999–2008

We conducted a content analysis of presentations on women, crime, and criminal justice at the annual meetings of the American Society of Criminology from 1999 through 2008 to determine not only the range of topics that were presented on women and crime but also who made the presentations. By focusing on presentations of research on women, crime, and criminal justice, we attempt to determine whether these areas are more or less likely to be recognized, explored, and discussed. Findings suggest that (a) the issues of women, crime, and criminal justice were included in 16.13 percent of American Society of Criminology conference presentations during the period of study, and the annual percentage of presentations on these topic areas has remained constant; (b) although there is a wide array of topics in the presentations on women and crime, the most frequently addressed topics and rarely addressed topics are constant over the years; and (c) presentations on and about gender issues have been conducted primarily by female scholars.     

A Uniform, Internationally Oriented Legal Framework for the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan?

The growth in commercial transactions with Mainland China, HongKong Special Administrative Region and the Taiwan region (Taiwan)as well as the economic integration in the entire area havelead to an increase in disputes. Considering the importanceof arbitration as a mechanism for resolving commercial disputesin the area, the paper discusses whether a substantial "clash"between their legal frameworks for the recognition and enforcementof foreign arbitral awards can be observed. After a criticalanalysis, the paper concludes that these frameworks are eithersubject to or modelled on the New York Convention. Yet, eachhas a distinct approach to the implementation, and dissimilaritiesarise. Furthermore, the specific legal framework for the recognitionand enforcement of Mainland China awards in Hong Kong and Taiwan,and vice versa, still raises some concerns and is not fullyreliable.     

Insuring against the Environmental and Other Risks,and Preparing for the Rewards,Associated with the Emergence of Legal Cannabis: Smoking Hot or up in Smoke?

Legal cannabis appears here to stay, whether for medical or recreational purposes. With California facing very serious drought conditions and millions of people seeking legitimate medical relief, effectively managing cannabis-industry risks becomes even more urgent. This article provides an overview of the risks and insurance coverage issues facing this nascent industry, with an emphasis on environmental risks. Many of the identifiable risks are common to virtually all businesses. However, some risks to the environment, including impacts on water quality, energy use, and waste management and disposal, are more specific to the industry. There are unique risks as well, including those posed by the dichotomy between state approval and continuing federal regulation and the resulting impact on obtaining financing or payment of insurance claims. All of these issues require further analysis for purposes of effective risk management, insurance underwriting, and government regulation.     

Gender and Justice in the Progressive Era: An Investigation of Saint Louis Juvenile Court Cases, 1909–1912

There is increased interest in the history of the juvenile court and its role in the social control of youth. In this context, feminist scholars have emphasized the long‐standing legacy of the court's attempt to control girls' violations of gender images, particularly sexual behavior and status offenses. This perspective argues that girls are penalized more harshly than boys, despite being charged with less serious offenses. The present study tests hypotheses about the relationships between gender and charge, prehearing detention, and disposition using St. Louis juvenile court records for the years 1909–1912. Qualitative content analysis is used to probe more deeply the connection between gender and sexually based charges in the early history of the St. Louis juvenile court. Findings indicate that girls were subject to harsher forms of social control than boys, despite less serious charges, and that sexual behavior was described and treated much differently in girls' records than in boys'. Connections to contemporary practices are delineated.     

Racial Residential Segregation and Social Control: A Panel Study of the Variation in Police Strength Across U.S Cities, 1980–2010

Despite a great deal of theoretical and empirical attention given to racial residential segregation and its influence on a number of social problems in the United States, few scholars have examined the role that this persistent form of racial inequality plays in shaping the magnitude of formal social control efforts. Our study examines this relationship by assessing the potential influence that the isolation of minorities may have on efforts to control crime in urban centers across the United States. Using a pooled time-series regression technique well suited for the analysis of aggregate, longitudinal data, we assess the potential influence of racial segregation on the size of municipal police departments in 170 U.S. cities between 1980 and 2010. After accounting for minority group size, economic threat, crime, and disorganization, we find that racial residential segregation has a significant non-linear effect on police force size. Cities with the most racially integrated populations have the smallest police presence but at very high levels of segregation, police strength levels off. This finding is consistent with expectations derived from the contact hypothesis. Under such conditions, majority group members appear to be less inclined to demand greater crime control measures such as increased police protection. Period interactions with residential segregation also suggest that this relationship has grown stronger in each decade since 1980. Overall, our study provides strong support for threat theories and the contact hypothesis but offers necessary refinements.     

Immigration and Crime in the New Destinations, 2000–2007: A Test of the Disorganizing Effect of Migration

Objectives

Drawing from a social disorganization perspective, this research addresses the effect of immigration on crime within new destinations—places that have experienced significant recent growth in immigration over the last two decades.

Methods

Fixed effects regression analyses are run on a sample of n = 1252 places, including 194 new destinations, for the change in crime from 2000 to the 2005–2007 period. Data are drawn from the 2000 Decennial Census, 2005–2007 American Community Survey, and the Uniform Crime Reports. Places included in the sample had a minimum population of 20,000 as of the 2005-07 ACS. New destinations are defined as places where the foreign-born have increased by 150 % or more since 1990 and with a minimum foreign-born population of 1000 in 2007.

Results

Results indicate new destinations experienced greater declines in crime, relative to the rest of the sample. Moreover, new destinations with greater increases in foreign-born experienced greater declines in their rates of crime. Additional predictors of change in crime include change in socioeconomic disadvantage, the adult-child ratio, and population size.

Conclusions

Results fail to support a disorganization view of the effect of immigration on crime in new destinations and are more in line with the emerging community resource perspective. Limitations and suggestions for future directions are discussed.

     

Parenting interventions for incarcerated parents to improve parenting knowledge and skills,parent well-being,and quality of the parent–child relationship: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Objectives

To systematically review and quantitatively synthesize the evidence for the impact of parenting interventions for incarcerated parents on parenting knowledge and skills, parent well-being, and quality of the parent–child relationship.

Methods

A systematic search of 19 published and unpublished literature sources was conducted between June and July 2015 (with no date, language, document type, or geographical restrictions). Studies were included if they: (a) utilized a sample of parents who completed a parenting intervention in an incarceration setting; (b) measured parenting knowledge and skills, parent well-being, or quality of the parent–child relationship as outcome measures; and (c) employed a randomized controlled trial or quasi-experimental design with no treatment, waitlist control, or treatment-as-usual as the comparison condition. Two review authors independently determined study eligibility and extracted data from eligible studies, which included rating the risk of bias for each eligible study. Meta-analysis was used to synthesize standardized effect sizes, and subgroup analyses were used to examine the moderating effect of parent gender, level of child involvement, and research design.

Results

Twenty-two studies were eligible for inclusion in the review; however, only 16 studies (N = 2292) reported sufficient data for inclusion in the meta-analyses. Parenting interventions were more effective at post-intervention for improving parenting knowledge and skills than no treatment, waitlist control, or treatment-as-usual [standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.68, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.28, 1.06] and quality of the parent–child relationship (SMD = 0.27, 95% CI 0.02, 0.51), but not for improving parent well-being (SMD = 0.14, 95% CI ?0.03, 0.30). There was significant heterogeneity across effect sizes for both parenting knowledge and skills and quality of the parent–child relationship outcome domains. There were no statistically significant differences between subgroups, and the effectiveness of parenting interventions was not maintained at follow-up time-points.

Conclusions

Existing evidence suggests small to moderate effectiveness for parenting interventions during incarceration at close to intervention completion. Further methodologically robust research is required to more confidently establish the effectiveness of parenting programs both in the short-term and in the post-release period.

     

Where are our Daughters, Mothers, Sisters, and Wives?: A Typological Analysis of Missing Women and Girls in Greater China, 1900–2000s

Advancing a typology for missing women and young girls in Greater China (China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) has been a task seldom engaged in by feminist criminologists, specialists in East Asian history, or sociologists specializing in women’s studies in the last decades. Partially because of this situation, people tend to believe that missing women and young girls in Greater China are abandoned or abducted persons, and that it is not difficult to categorize this group. The author of this paper argues that missing women and young girls in China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan are not merely abandoned or abducted persons. On the contrary, the socioeconomic, political, and/or cultural factors that separate some Chinese/Hong Kongese/Taiwanese females from their families are highly heterogeneous. With this in mind, the theme of this paper is to develop a classification system for missing females in China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan in the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Three variables are used to construct this classification system: personal choice, slavery, and sociological locus. Each of these factors is divided into two levels: forced/voluntary (F/V) migration for personal choice; involvement/non-involvement (I/N) of economically exploited labor for slavery; and unlikelihood/likelihood (U/L) of family reunification for sociological locus. Based on combinations of these stated variables, missing women/young girls in Greater China are conceptually categorized as FIU, FNU, FIL, FNL, VIU, VNU, VIL, and VNL types.     

‘Alien family’: The impact of the Aliens Act 1935 and subsequent Orders on the family in Ireland, 1933–1945

This article examines the consequences of Irish ‘aliens’ policy on families fleeing Nazi Germany using case studies of Irish German-speaking families and German-speaking families to ascertain the difficulties they faced. Analysis of the applications process undergone by families in order to secure a safe-haven from the reaches of the Third Reich reveals the main concerns of the Irish establishment and how these matters affected the potential safety of some individuals above others because of how they were officially categorised. Juxtaposing those who were considered an asset to Irish society against those who were not granted refuge this study traces the process both endured. While this article outlines the Irish government policy on refugees it focuses more particularly on how civil servants and government agencies implemented such policies and the subsequent impact on refugee family units affected by the Nazi regime.1 1?My doctoral research forms part of the German-speaking exiles in Ireland Project an initiative led by Dr Gisela Holfter in the Centre for Irish-German Studies at the University of Limerick. The overall project is attempting to fill a previous void in international exile studies, from an Irish perspective see Holfter, Gisela (Ed.). (2006 Holfter, Gisela, ed. 2006. German-speaking Exiles in Ireland 1933-1945, Amsterdam: Rodopi. New York [Google Scholar]). German-speaking Exiles in Ireland 1933-1945 Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi. This article attempts to reconcile internal policy, international relations and the effect these had on the lives of ordinary people both German-speaking and Irish. It will conclude by recognising the importance to the Irish authorities of the former two elements while acknowledging that despite them there were some successes for refugees although they were of least consequence in the priorities of the day.     

Setting the Path for the UNWCC: The Representation of European Exile Governments on the London International Assembly and the Commission for Penal Reconstruction and Development, 1941–1944

This article discusses the development of the UNWCC and the intellectuals involved. It notes the commitment that smaller Allied states made to frame international criminal law with regard to war crimes. The article pays particular attention to two Czech delegates who stood out from the community of experts, and who were instrumental in formalizing how war crimes committed in Europe during the Second World War – and beyond – should be handled. The concept of crimes against humanity became a main outcome of the legal debates, serving not only as a blueprint for the London Charter, but the international criminal law system as a whole. The predecessors of the UNWCC, involving some of the most renowned lawyers of the time, formed one of the first truly transnational networks. Moreover, the experiences of the lawyers, and their framing of that experience in lengthy memorandums, helped to generate a new concept in politics: the protection of human rights.