A methodology for illicit heroin seizures comparison in a drug intelligence perspective using large databases

To characterise links between different illicit drugs chemical profiles, various distance or correlation measurements are available.Different comparison methods have been tested and a method based on a correlation coefficient using a square cosine function was chosen to compare heroin chemical profiles. Its functioning and graphical representation are described. An assessment of the number of false positives is calculated and lead to a negligible number.Moreover, it emerges from the studies that possible variations in impurity peak areas subject to possible degradations do not influence the C correlation value nor question the already established links.This solid, reliable and simple method appears therefore suitable for heroin samples comparison, links profiling and routine use.     

Drug intelligence based on organic impurities in illicit MA samples

One major objective of the European project "Collaborative Harmonisation of Methods for Profiling of Amphetamine Type Stimulants" (CHAMP), funded by the sixth framework programme of the European Commission, consisted of the harmonisation of a gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method for the analysis of organic impurities found in illicit methamphetamine (MA) samples in a drug intelligence perspective. Statistical analysis provided a selection of pertinent variables among the 43 organic impurities identified in the chromatograms. As for the 3,4-MethyleneDioxyMethAmphetamine (MDMA) study, correlation coefficients were used as a discrimination tool between populations of linked samples (from the same seizure) and unlinked samples (from different seizures). It was also shown that correlation measurements based on Pearson and cosine functions applied to the data pre-treated by normalisation to the sum of peak responses followed by the square root provided excellent discrimination between the two populations. The organic impurities profiling method was proved to be relevant for the characterization of samples from different seizures and their synthesis route patterns.     

Validation of police officer recruit candidates' self-reported drug use

Three hundred and fifty-nine Chicago Police Department recruit candidates submitted urine specimens as part of a drug-screening program. Candidates were tested in two groups about a week apart. About 20% of the recruit candidates in each group evidenced drug, primarily marijuana use. As part of a psychological screening test battery all the candidates also took the Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI). The IPI contains a self-report Drug Use Scale. Drug-Positive and Drug-Negative candidates' Drug Use Scale scores were matched by age, sex, and racial/ethnic group and compared to evaluate the accuracy of self-reported drug use when screening police recruit candidates. Results showed that Drug-Positive candidates' self-reported drug use was consistently higher than that of Drug-Negative candidates. Item-level analyses showed which drug use items best discriminate between Drug-Positive and Drug-Negative candidates. Implications are drawn for use of self-report as part of a police candidate screening process.     

Community structure and drug use: From a social disorganization perspective

Social disorganization theory experienced a relative resurgence in the criminological literature during the 1980s. This new generation of research has expanded the work of Shaw and McKay by testing the relationship between neighborhood structure and delinquency through the use of self-report and victimization data. Confirmation of the theory has been widespread. In this paper we investigate variables mediating between social disorganization and adolescent drug use. We thus extend the research orientation to incorporate drug use and describe a preliminary attempt to examine how neighborhood structure affects behavior. The findings suggest that in the three distinct types of socially disorganized areas that were identified, there was no difference in rates of drug use but that different “mediating factors” appear to be operating in the three different types of communities.     

Crime as a negotiated commodity: The police use of informers

Criminologists have long been interested in the relationship between policing and community participation. Traditionally, it has been argued that law enforcement agencies are dependent upon the general community for crime information. Recently, however, there is a growing interest among criminologists to explore the dependency relations police create within different subpopulations, especially diverse street subcultures. This study explores the social organization of police-street hustlers relations. Using qualitative data on 70 hustlers and 50 police officers, we examine how crime is manipulated as a commodity in advancing the interests of informers and the police. It is argued that although separate and unrelated situational factors are important, a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of these exchanges warrants an investigation of social networks and law. It is concluded that the informal contexts of law significantly pervade the informal contexts of these encounters. This topic demands considerable attention given the lack of organizational policies or standards which jeopardizes public confidence and erodes the informer's constitutional protections.     

The prevalence of MDMA/MDA in both hair and urine in drug users

The prevalence and age distribution of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) in hair samples by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were studied. The recoveries obtained from hair were 97% and 99% for MDMA and MDA, respectively. The inter- and intra-assay precision and accuracy were determined. Out of 791 hair samples, 44 (5.6 %) contained MDMA and/or MDA. Out of these 44 subjects, urinalyses from 35 were negative for both MDMA and MDA, while only 9 were positive. We also evaluated concentrations of MDMA and MDA, and the metabolite-to-parent drug ratios. This study showed that the abuse of MDMA or MDA was found principally among young adults and male abusers. We found the epidemiology of ecstasy users in Korea between March 2002 and April 2003.     

The development of drug trade and drug control in the Netherlands: a historical perspective

Drug trade is widely seen as a phenomenon rather new to the Netherlands. However, at the beginning of the 20th century the Dutch pharmaceutical industries were already extensively involved in the production of both opiates and cocaine, and they went on exporting large quantities of these drugs after the Opium Act (1919) took force. Until the 1960s, arrests were not at all common, and these largely affected minority groups like Chinese opium smokers and black marijuana users. Since then, drug control efforts have increased by leaps and bounds. At first, cannabis was the main target; then the focus turned to heroin, and that was later joined by cocaine. This paper traces the history of the drug trade and drug control in the Netherlands, with emphasis on their development in Amsterdam. The conclusion is reached that, in spite of drastic changes in both drug trade and drug control, certain ideologies, constructs and strategies have remained remarkably stable.     

A study of impurities found in methamphetamine synthesized from ephedrine

The synthesis of methamphetamine from ephedrine via reduction with hydriodic acid is discussed. Impurities which arise from this method are identified and rationalized. The in situ formation of iodoephedrine from ephedrine leads to trace impurities via internal substitution to 1,2-dimethyl-3-phenylaziridine, followed by retro ring-opening and hydrolysis to phenyl-2-propanone (P-2-P). This ketone or the retro ring-opened aziridine further condenses in an aldol condensation followed by dehydration to give 1-benzyl-3-methylnaphthalene and 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-naphthalene. Two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (2-D NMR) was utilized to elucidate the structure of these impurities.     

Prevalence of organic gunshot residues in police vehicles

The present study investigated the organic gunshot residue (OGSR) background level of police vehicles in Switzerland. Specimens from 64 vehicles belonging to two regional police services were collected and analysed by LC-MS in positive mode. The driver’s and back seats were sampled separately to monitor potential differences between locations and to assess the risks of a suspect being contaminated by OGSR during transportation to a police station.The results showed that most of the 64 vehicles were uncontaminated (44 driver’s seats and 38 back seats respectively). Up to six of the seven targeted compounds were detected in a single sample, once on a driver’s seat and twice on back seats. The contamination frequency generally decreased as the number of compounds detected together increased. The amounts detected were in the low ng range and less than amounts generally detected just after discharge on a shooter. Our data indicated that detecting a combination of four or more compounds on a police vehicle seat appears to be a relatively rare occurrence. The background contamination observed was most probably due to secondary transfer from police officers (e.g. through recent participation in a shooting session or firearm manipulation) or from firearms stored in the vehicles. The present results might be used as a recommendation to minimize contact of a suspect with contaminated surfaces if OGSR is implemented in routine work in parallel to IGSR analysis.     

The use and abuse of erection measurements: a forensic perspective

The use of erection measurement studies is proliferating in the assessment and treatment of sexual deviants. Because of the nature of sexual offense, there are many inherent legal complications with the implementation of this technology, specifically its use as evidence. The authors present data from a study of 185 sex offenders in an attempt to illustrate the appropriate utility of erection measurements in treatment and its potential for abuse in the legal context.     

Determinants of public confidence in police: An international perspective

Previous studies concerning public confidence in the police had primarily focused on demographic, attitudinal, and contextual factors in the United States. Little research, however, has used country-level variables to explain variations that exist across countries. As a result, this study examined the impact of country-level predictors (e.g., homicide rate and level of democracy) as well as individual-level predictors on public confidence in the police by utilizing data sets collected from three international surveys. Using hierarchical generalized linear modeling (HGLM) for the multinomial dependent variable, this study found a significant and negative relationship between homicide rate and public confidence in the police. People living in a country with a higher homicide rate reported lower levels of confidence in the police. Level of democracy was also found to be positively related to public confidence in the police. Of the individual-level variables, age and education were found to be significant predictors. A positive relationship was also found between political conservatism or personal satisfaction and confidence in the police. In line with attitudinal and contextual predictors, individuals with higher levels of acceptance toward deviant subcultures reported lower levels of confidence in the police. On the other hand, those who were more satisfied with their country's democratic development showed more favorable attitudes toward the police. The findings of this study implied that police organizations should put greater efforts toward the reduction of crime while protecting democratic values within a society.     

The effects of supervisor education and training on police use of force

Police supervisors play a critical role in preventing unreasonable use of force. Despite their importance, only a few studies have examined the influences of supervisors on their subordinates’ daily practices, especially on their uses of police force. To bridge this gap, the current study explored the relationship between supervisors’ education level and use of force training and subordinate officers’ use of force practices. Using police use of force reports from 2004 to 2007 in a single urban police department, the current study examined how supervisor education and training impact on police use-of-force and found both highly educated and trained supervisors moderate their subordinate officers’ uses of higher levels of force.     

New paradigms in researching police use of firearms

In the current climate of increasing violence against the police, the use of force by police officers has been the focus of much dabate, ranging from the use of non lethal incapacitant sprays to the use of lethal force^I. We review literature concerning the use of lethal force by police officers, evaluate its utility for operational contexts, consider its implications for training and propose that new technological devices can revolutionise the identification of crucial variables.     

Open drug scenes and police strategies in Oslo,Norway

Harm reduction has since the late 80s gradually been part of Norwegian drug policy, challenging original working strategies for police in open drug scenes; places with extensive public trade and use of illegal drugs. This study addresses the research questions: What characterizes police work in open drug scenes in Oslo? How do the police solve the practical challenges of working within a ‘dual-track policy’ combining harm-reducing and punitive approaches? This historical analysis of police approaches to open drug scenes concerns the years 1993–2015. The open drug scene has moved continuously within a limited area around the Central train Station. The study uses data from newspaper articles, semi-structured interviews of responsible police in the area and public action plans by the Municipality of Oslo. Police strategies in Oslo’s drug scenes have changed from strictly punitive to a mixture of harm-reducing and punitive efforts. The police change back and forth between these strategies, and within the same time period they sometimes engage in both. Within the current drug policy, the dilemmas of practical police work persist, as inhabitants of the drug scene perform numerous criminal acts and simultaneously are in need of care.