A Theoretical Understanding of Abusive Intimate Partner Relationships that Become Non-violent: Shifting the Pattern of Abusive Control

Our theoretical understanding of abusive intimate partner relationships has ignored relationships that have become non-violent. We interviewed a community convenience sample of 27 women whose relationships had become non-violent. Using the constant comparative analysis of grounded theory, we generated a substantive theory, shifting the pattern of abusive control with three sub-processes, counteracting abuse, taking control, and living differently. Women’s acquisition of personal capacity and autonomy was foundational to countering the insidious oppression of abuse. Partners in these relationships that became non-violent, paid attention, gradually backing off and ceasing violent acts. For some women, coexisting in a violence-free relationship was satisfactory; for others, investing in an improved intimate partner relationship was essential for sustaining living differently. This theory provides direction for women who are working toward living differently with partners who are no longer violent, and for their helpers. Further, our findings contribute to our theoretical understanding of how abusive couple relationships may evolve over time.     

The Social Context of Woman-to-Woman Intimate Partner Abuse (WWIPA)

Forty women who had been in abusive adult, intimate relationships with other women were interviewed. Their life experiences leading up to these abusive relationships were qualitatively examined to determine how heterosexism created a social context in which women were left vulnerable to abuse and dependent on their abusers. Childhood abuse, negative coming out experiences, lack of a queer community, and substance/alcohol abuse contributed to survivors’ vulnerability to abuse by making them socially isolated from a support system and dependent on their partners to reconstruct a sense of family.     

Positive Resolution of Childhood Sexual Abuse Experiences: The Role of Coping,Benefit-Finding and Meaning-Making

Resolution of the trauma of childhood sexual abuse (CSA), and the current adjustment of 60 adult female CSA survivors were explored through qualitative and quantitative analyses of their coping strategies, perceived benefits, and meaning-making attempts. While the majority of the women (87%) perceived at least some benefit resulting from coping with the CSA experience, many (29%) found it impossible to make any meaning of their trauma. Specific benefits that were associated with various aspects of positive adjustment (marital satisfaction, better physical health, less isolation) included improved relationships with others, religious or spiritual growth, and improved parenting skills. Some perceived benefits were actually associated with a negative outcome. Increased knowledge of sexual abuse was associated with more isolation and lower marital satisfaction. When positive meaning could be derived from the coping process, the women reported less isolation. Avoidant coping was strongly associated with more depressive symptoms and poorer resolution of abuse issues. Results highlight the importance of considering coping strategies and cognitive restructuring efforts in designing therapeutic interventions with this population. Portions of this paper were presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Psychological Association, May 2004, Chicago, IL.     

Relationships among abuse characteristics, coping strategies, and abused women's psychological health: a path model

We examined relationships between abuse, coping, and psychological health among 143 women who had experienced abuse in adult relationships. Measures included characteristics of the abuse, problem-focused and emotion-focused coping, Sense of Coherence, and four measures of psychological wellbeing--the SF-36 Mental Component Scale, the General Health Questionnaire, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale, and a measure of perceived negative effects of the abuse. Problem-focused coping was not related to psychological health, and the influence of emotion-focused coping on psychological health was indirect. Sense of coherence had significant direct effects on psychological health. Both emotion-focused coping and sense of coherence were related to aspects of the abusive experience. The concept of sense of coherence has parallels with the recently proposed concept of meaning-focused coping, and the data suggest that finding meaning in adverse events such as abuse is associated with better psychological well-being.     

Personality Profiles of Women in Multiple Abusive Relationships

Personality profiles of women with multiple abusive relationship histories (N = 42) were compared to either abused women with 1 abusive relationship (N = 33) or a control group (N = 52) on the Coolidge Axis II Inventory (Coolidge & Merwin, 1992, J. Pers. Assess. 59: 223–238), a self-report measure based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Women with multiple abusive relationships had higher rates and greater levels of dependent, paranoid, and self-defeating personality disorders than women in the other 2 groups. Women in multiple abusive relationships had significantly more depression, and women in this group with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) had significantly more personality disorders than women with single abusive relationships with PTSD. Women in single abusive relationships did not exhibit more psychopathology than women in the control group with matched marital status. Theoretical and methodological issues, and treatment recommendations are discussed.     

Reasons for Staying in Intimately Violent Relationships: Comparisons of Men and Women and Messages Communicated to Self and Others

Victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) often are blamed for remaining in abusive relationships. As a result, victims may communicate messages rationalizing why they stay. Systematic, comparative examinations of these messages directed toward self and others by males versus females have not been conducted. This study addresses a gap in the literature by exploring victims’ communication regarding staying. Self-reports of 345 heterosexual IPV victims (N = 239 women, 106 men) demonstrated that more justifications were communicated internally to self than externally to others. Men and women differed significantly in only three of 14 messages, with men choosing more stereotypically masculine reasons for staying. Findings are discussed in terms of applications to victims and their stay-leave decision-making in IPV relationships.     

The Influence of Supportive and Nonsupportive Persons in Helping Rural Women in Abusive Partner Relationships Become Free from Abuse

Many rural women in abusive partner relationships have reached to informal and formal support networks for assistance and have been negated, discounted, or treated in a nonsupportive manner. Women trying to end partner abuse rarely have found the help they seek from their communities; and family and friends may question, blame, or misunderstand women's situations. This study examined behaviors of supportive and nonsupportive persons and the effectiveness of support networks in helping rural women in abusive partner relationships become free from abuse. Supportive persons were found to help women access resources and extended informal and formal networks which in turn helped women become free from abuse. Nonsupportive persons hindered women's access to resources and facilitated in keeping women bound in abusive partner relationships. Partner abuse is a complex societal issue that involves a large network of support and services in order to help women become free from abuse, having implications to educators and service providers.     

He Loves Me; He Loves Me Not: Attachment and Separation Resolution of Abused Women

Working within an attachment perspective, we examined women's success at emotional separation from abusive partners. The attachment patterns of 63 abused women were assessed shortly after having left their abusive relationships. Six months later, their perceptions, feelings, and behaviors regarding the separation were assessed, to determine an overall level of separation resolution. As expected, attachment patterns associated with a negative self model were overrepresented (88% of the sample had a predominant pattern of fearful or preoccupied attachment). Further, preoccupation was associated with shorter relationship length, more frequent previous separations from the abusive relationship, continuing emotional involvement with partners after separation, and more frequent sexual contact with partners. These findings suggest that preoccupation may be a risk factor in successful separation resolution from abusive relationships.     

Patterns of physical and sexual abuse for men and women in dating relationships: A descriptive analysis

A random sample of students at a large Midwestern University was selected in order to examine whether and how physical and sexual abuse were related to each other for men and women, whether abuse in one relationship was independent of abuse in other relationships, and how victims responded to abusive incidents. The results revealed several important patterns. When comparing the frequency of physical and sexual abuse for men and women, it was found that sexual abuse was more common than physical abuse, but only for women. Additionally, women experienced more sexual abuse than men. While men and women did not experience physical abuse in other relationships at more than chance levels, women who sustained sexual abuse in one relationship were more likely to sustain sexual abuse in other relationships. Furthermore, while sustaining physical and sexual abuse were not associated with one another for men, there was a weak association for women. Finally, victims of abuse were more likely to tell their friends they had been abused than report it to criminal justice authorities.Paper presented at the 1987 American Society of Criminology Meetings.     

Serendipitous Intervention: Qualitative Findings from the Study of Dynamic Patterns of Husband-to-Wife Abuse

This mixed methods study observed day-to-day dynamics of husband-to-wife abuse. Daily reporting and weekly interaction with a research associate appeared to offer great benefit. A sample of 20 women age 20–62, were enrolled. Participants at high risk for abuse were excluded. Women who met the inclusion criteria completed a baseline questionnaire. Participants were instructed to complete a daily telephone assessment for 60 days to track the prior day’s abuse severity and potential violence predictors. Participants also completed a qualitative end-of-study interview. Women reported an increased awareness of community resources, heightened self-esteem and coping empowerment. Seven women (35 %) left their abusive relationships. Women who left were more educated but had lower socio-economic status (SES). Participants in common-law marriages were also more likely to leave. The unforeseen consequences of daily reporting coupled with regular contact with an engaged listener were positively associated with a woman’s readiness for change.     

Marital status and woman abuse theory

An area that has received insufficient attention in woman abuse studies is marital status. Although many feel that ending the marriage will end the violence, this may not be the case. An examination of National Crime Survey victimization data shows that most victims are, at the time of the interview, divorced or separated. There are reasons to believe that this is partially accounted for by the fact that many or even most women leave abusive relationships. If this is the case, then the traditional question of why women remain in battering marriages is improperly put. If most women do take appropriate steps, then we need much more information on both how women are victimized by ex-spouses and how women take active steps to improve their own lives.     

Exploring the Stressors of Low-Income Women with Abusive Partners: Understanding Their Needs and Developing Effective Community Responses

This study examined how women's experiences of domestic violence may affect their level of stress, as measured by difficult life circumstances and stressful life events for 107 women living in poverty. Results indicated that women with abusive partners reported higher levels of stress than women who had not experienced abuse. Women's perceptions of how their experiences of domestic violence impacted their health and the type of events women perceived to be most stressful were also examined. Symptoms most frequently perceived to be a result of abusive experiences were heart pounding/racing, trembling hands, headaches, and sleep problems. Implications of the findings for research and community intervention are discussed, including the importance of providing not only crisis intervention services, but also the need to create and maintain long-term support and advocacy services for women who have experienced domestic violence.     

The role of emotional abuse in physically abusive relationships

Two hundred thirty four women were interviewed to assess the relationship of emotional abuse to physical abuse. Six major types of emotional abuse were identified. Analyses determined if the types of emotional abuse were related to the frequency and severity of physical abuse. Women in long-term abusive relationships were contrasted with women experiencing only short-term abuse. Other comparisons consisted of: women who thought emotional abuse was worse than physical abuse vs. women who thought the opposite; and women who could predict physical abuse from the emotional abuse were compared with those who could not. The extent to which the women believed the men's threats and ridicule or thought their abusive behavior was justified was used as a factor to determine the impact of emotional abuse. Future research should investigate emotional abuse patterns in nonbattering relationships for comparison with battered women's experiences.     

How Has Living with Intimate Partner Violence Affected the Work Situation? A Qualitative Study among Abused Women in Norway

A qualitative study was conducted among 18 abused women from different parts of Norway to explore what paid work means for women exposed to partner violence and how living with an abusive partner affected their working life. Based on systematic text condensation analyses of their experiences as described in individual and focus group interviews, the study’s findings reveal two major themes. The first is about recovery and survival, and the other about the spillover of problems caused by a violent partner into paid work. Work was important to the women, as it represented time off from violence, contact with others who cared for them, and maintenance of self-esteem and self-confidence. Having their own money provided security and strengthened the belief that they could manage on their own. The spillover of intimate partner violence problems appeared through feelings of fear, shame and guilt at work.     

Reasons for Returning to Abusive Relationships: Effects of Prior Victimization

Studies have demonstrated that women with a history of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) are at increased risk of revictimization, but research has not yet examined whether a history of CSA may affect patterns of remaining in or returning to abusive relationships in adulthood. This study examines the impact of a CSA history on decisions to return to abusive relationships in a sample of 104 adult domestic violence survivors. Participants were interviewed about the number of times that they had previously separated from and returned to their abusive partner, the factors that influenced their decision to return (both psychological/internal and environmental/external factors), and their perceived likelihood of returning in the future. As predicted, CSA survivors (n = 34) reported a significantly greater number of past separations than non-CSA survivors (n = 70). CSA survivors were also significantly more likely to report that their decisions to return were influenced by emotional attachment to the batterer. CSA survivors did not perceive themselves to be at greater risk of returning in the future, suggesting that they may be more likely to underestimate their vulnerability to returning to the battering relationship. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Whatever Gets you Through the Night: Officer Coping Strategies after the High-Profile Line of Duty Deaths in Dallas and Baton Rouge

The policing profession has recently experienced events that affected officers across the nation. Several high-profile cases involving police and members of minority communities intensified the tensions among these groups. Amid public criticisms of policing, law enforcement officers have become targets of attacks. Multiple cases of officer ambushes and assassinations have further troubled the already stressful occupational position of law enforcement. This study investigates what coping strategies officers used after the deadly attacks on police in Dallas, Texas and Baton Rouge, Louisiana that occurred in July, 2016. We also investigate how the coping strategies used affects job motivation among officers. Our findings suggest officers turned to three coping strategies: support networks, stoic self-help, and self-medication. These coping strategies were found to be ineffective mechanisms for protecting officer job motivation; however, some strategies adversely affected motivation more than others. Understanding how officers are coping and why effective strategies are not being employed adequately is imperative for both the safety of officers and the public.     

The Agencies of Abuse: Intimate Abusers' Experience of Presumptive Arrest and Prosecution

Presumptive arrest and prosecution policies are designed to eradicate domestic violence by disrupting abusive relationships and transforming the subjectivities of victimized women and abusive men. Using in-depth interviews with 30 persons arrested and prosecuted for domestic violence, this article examines the power of presumptive policies by exploring how intimate abusers experience them. The study finds that while the police and courts are able to secure arrests and convictions on domestic violence cases, nearly all the respondents in this study understand their punishments as unfair sanctions meted out by an unjust local legal system rather than as the consequences of their own actions. These injustice claims emerge from abusers' group identities as well as the very practices through which the police and courts gain authority over them. These findings demonstrate that the power of the law as a force for social change may be more limited than some have claimed. In addition, they reinforce calls to reform society's response to intimate violence through procedures that can go further in empowering victims and having offenders recognize their responsibility for violence.     

“Even though we're married,I'm single”: The meaning of jail incarceration in romantic relationships

Jail incarceration substantially transforms romantic relationships, and incarceration may alter the commitment between partners, thereby undermining or strengthening relationships. In this article, we use in-depth interviews with 85 women connected to incarcerated men (as current or former romantic partners) to explore how women articulate relationship changes that stem from their partner's jail incarceration, a common but understudied form of contact with the criminal legal system. We identify three interrelated and mutually reinforcing processes, which are shaped by and shape a partner's commitment to the relationship. First, incarceration produces liminality in the status of the relationship. Second, incarceration fosters women's sense of independence from their incarcerated partners. Third, incarceration creates space for partners to reevaluate how they prioritize the relationship in their lives. Jail incarceration intervenes in romantic relationships at different points during each relationship, and accordingly, women experience heterogeneity in processes of liminality, independence, and reprioritization. These processes contribute to differential relationship experiences, with some relationships deteriorating during incarceration, others strengthening, and others neither deteriorating nor strengthening. By systematically uncovering these processes linking jail incarceration to romantic relationships, we advance an understanding of how the criminal legal system can shape relationship commitment processes and inequalities among families.