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1.
This study presents evidence on the cross-cultural generalizability of differential association/social learning theory by testing whether the causal processes of learning attitudes toward deviance, posited by the theory, are equally applicable, and the causal links, specified by the theory, are equally strong in two diverse cultures—the USA and Japan. Drawing on the literature concerning cultural variability in individualism-collectivism, we predicted that the effects of peer reactions to deviance and peer deviance on a person’s attitudes toward deviance should be stronger in Japan than in the USA, and that the mediating effect of a person’s attitudes on the relationship of peer reactions and peer deviance to a person’s deviance should be weaker among Japanese than among Americans. Analyses of comparable survey data from college students in the USA (N?=?625) and Japan (N?=?591) provide generally supportive, but somewhat mixed, evidence regarding our predictions. In both countries, peer reactions to deviance predicted student attitudes toward deviance more strongly than did peer deviance. Peer deviance strongly predicted student deviance, while peer reactions to deviance predicted less strongly, and the effects were mediated by student attitudes in both countries. Contrary to the hypotheses, peer reactions and peer deviance did not predict student attitudes more strongly in Japan than in the USA. Also, peer deviance predicted student deviance more strongly in the USA than in Japan. In agreement with the expectations, the relation between student attitudes and student deviance was stronger in the USA than in Japan. 相似文献
2.
The thesis of this article is that reactions to misfortunes are often biased by the counterfactual fallacy: the tendency to view events that can easily be imagined otherwise as events that ought not to have been. Drawing upon a diverse set of empirical findings we demonstrate that victims' and observers' reactions to misfortunes depend on the extent to which the event prompts them to generate counterfactual thoughts or images of more positive alternatives. We discuss the factors that determine the ease with which a negative event can be imagined otherwise, along with their relevance to a variety of justice-relevant responses, including perceptions of deservingness, recommendations for compensation, and blame assignment. 相似文献
3.
Innocent victims of crime are often blamed for what happened to them. In this article, we examine the hypothesis that victim
blaming can be significantly reduced when people mimic the behavior of the victim or even a person unrelated to the crime.
Participants watched a person on a video after which we assessed the extent of their spontaneous mimicry reactions (Study
1) or participants were instructed to mimic or not to mimic the movements of this person (Study 2). Then, they were informed
about a rape and criminal assault and judged the degree to which they thought the victims were responsible for the crime.
One of the crimes happened to the same person as the person they previously did or did not mimic. The other crime happened
to a person unrelated to the mimicry situation. Results of both studies revealed that previously mimicking the victim or an
unrelated person reduced the degree to which victims were being blamed. 相似文献
4.
Building and extending on justice theories and work on self-regulation, the current paper proposes a self-activation hypothesis
of affective reactions to fair and unfair events, stating that in circumstances in which people’s selves are activated, stronger
affective reactions to fair and unfair events are more likely, compared to circumstances in which people’s selves are not
or less strongly activated. Findings of two experiments indeed show that simply activating the self (supraliminally or even
subliminally) amplifies affective reactions to fair and unfair procedures (Experiment 1) and fair and unfair outcomes (Experiment
2). These findings thus reveal the important role of activation of the self for understanding fairness reactions. In the discussion,
we note the relevance of our self-activation hypothesis for insights into different accounts formulated in the justice domain. 相似文献
5.
Psychological responses to criminal wrongdoing have primarily focused on the offender, particularly on how (and why) offender
punishment satisfies people’s need for justice. However, the restoration of the victim presents another way in which the “psychological
itch” that injustice creates can be addressed. In the present article, I discuss two lay theories of how crime victims can
be restored: a belief that the harm caused to crime victims should be directly repaired (a restorative justice approach) versus
a belief that victim harm should be addressed via the punishment of the offender (a retributive justice approach). These two
lay theories are discussed with regard to their emotional and ideological determinants, as well as situational and chronic
factors that can affect whether people adopt a reparative or punitive “justice mindset” in dealing with victim concerns (and
crime in general). 相似文献
6.
There is a general belief that stranger stalkers present the greatest threat to the personal safety of victims, despite national victimisation surveys and applied research demonstrating that ex-partner stalkers are generally more persistent and violent. The just-world hypothesis offers a possible explanation for this apparent contradiction. The current research used nine hypothetical scenarios, administered to 328 university students, to investigate the assumptions that underlie attributions of responsibility in cases of stalking. It explores whether these assumptions are consistent with the proposed mechanisms of the just-world hypothesis, and whether they vary according to the nature of the perpetrator–victim relationship and conduct severity. Thematic analysis revealed that the victim was perceived to be more responsible for the situation when the perpetrator was portrayed as an ex-partner rather than a stranger or acquaintance. Furthermore, victims were perceived to be more responsible when the perpetrator's behaviour was persistent and threatening. These findings are discussed in the context of the just-world hypothesis and related to the proposed mechanisms by which a person can reinterpret a situation so that the perceived injustice disappears. 相似文献
7.
Why is it that some people respond in a more negative way to procedural injustice than do others, and why is it that some people go on to defy authority while others in the same situation do not? Personality theorists suggest that the psychological effect of a situation depends on how a person interprets the situation and that such differences in interpretation can vary as a function of individual difference factors. For example, affect intensity—one’s predisposition to react more or less emotionally to an event—is one such individual difference factor that has been shown to influence people’s reactions to events. Cross-sectional survey data collected from (a) 652 tax offenders who have been through a serious law enforcement experience (Study 1), and (b) 672 citizens with recent personal contact with a police officer (Study 2), showed that individual differences in ‘affect intensity’ moderate the effect of procedural justice on both affective reactions and compliance behavior. Specifically, perceptions of procedural justice had a greater effect in reducing anger and reports of non-compliance among those lower in affect intensity than those higher in affect intensity. Both methodological and theoretical explanations are offered to explain the results, including the suggestion that emotions of shame may play a role in the observed interaction. 相似文献
8.
药品不良反应是在正常使用合格药品时产生的有害或意外反应。因药品不良反应导致患者严重损害的,相关主体应对受害人进行赔偿。在我国现行法下,药品不良反应法律责任不同于医疗事故责任、产品责任和国家赔偿责任,而属于侵权法中的公平责任。我国应及早建立和完善药品不良反应救济机制,实行药品不良反应救济基金制度。 相似文献
9.
This study's goal is to identify differences in background, assault, and postassault factors according to the victim-offender relationship. A mail survey is conducted with more than 1,000 female sexual assault survivors (response rate 90%) recruited from college, community, and mental health agency sources. Stranger assailants are associated with a greater victim perceived life threat, more severe sexual assaults, and ethnic minority victims. Positive social reactions do not vary according to the victim-offender relationship, but stranger victims report more negative social reactions from others than do victims of acquaintances or romantic partners. Assaults by strangers and relatives are associated with more posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms than assaults by acquaintances and romantic partners. As expected, survivors' social cognitive responses to rape and social reactions from support providers are stronger correlates of PTSD symptoms than demographic or assault characteristics in general, but correlates vary across victim-offender relationship groups. 相似文献
10.
Now that the Japanese economic miracle has soured into the Japanese economic meltdown, scholars are confronted with a new challenge: instead of trying to penetrate the secret of Japan's successes, they must try to unravel the enigma of its misfortunes. Professors Curtis Milhaupt and Geoffrey Miller (1997) have performed a great service in documenting one of the most dramatic of those misfortunes – the collapse of the jusen companies. Professor Shinsaku Iwahara (1997) has also performed an equally valuable service by placing this event in the larger context of Japanese politics and society. But despite its record setting scale, the jusen problem was not unprecedented; Japan merely followed in the footsteps of its economic mentor, the United States, which experienced a very similar financial meltdown about a decade earlier. This commentary briefly describes that event – the U.S. savings and loan crisis – and then draws some tentative conclusions on the basis of a comparison of the two events. 相似文献
11.
Three studies demonstrate that people are more likely to vote for political candidates who respond to injustice in a compensatory rather than punitive manner. Participants were more likely to vote for candidates who responded to various transgressions (the Darfur crisis, campus bike theft, and domestic violence) by compensating victims (or simultaneously compensating victims and punishing perpetrators) rather than solely punishing the perpetrator or not responding. Furthermore, participants’ perceptions of candidates’ warmth (but not competence) mediated the relationship between punishing versus compensating and voting. 相似文献
12.
Previous research by the Modena Group on Stalking (MGS) regarding awareness and recognition of stalking by police officers
and general practitioners using case scenarios showed significant differences across three countries. It was also hypothesized
that victims used different pathways when seeking help. To explore the experience of requesting help by victims of stalking
in different European countries a detailed survey was completed by 391 victims of stalking in Belgium (n = 145), Italy (n = 126)
and Slovenia (n = 120). The research confirmed the significant intensity and duration of stalking and psychological distress
for victims. Victims used several pathways to survive stalking. Some victims reported that informal interventions they or
family/friends implemented were effective, but the majority had to have recourse to helping agencies. Significant differences
in help seeking behaviour were found between the three countries. In Belgium victims contacted the police, as well as other
helping agencies, more often and more precociously than in Italy and Slovenia. Restriction orders against the stalker were
considered the most effective intervention. Police were regarded as the least supportive agency, taking victims less seriously,
and not being particularly effective at stopping the stalkers. Police were ranked after family/friends, lawyers and colleagues,
with regards effectiveness, except in Belgium, where Police’s effectiveness was ranked second after lawyers. Stalking often
requires the mobilization of multiple helping agencies by victims and it is important that victims are aware of what help
is available to them and that agencies become more sensitive to their needs. 相似文献
13.
Based on the idea that overpaid people are in conflict between hedonic principles (i.e., what makes them pleased) and what
they believe to be right, two studies tested the hypothesis that it should be relatively difficult for people to make satisfaction
judgments regarding outcomes in which they are being advantaged. In line with this hypothesis, Study 1 demonstrated that response
latencies of satisfaction judgments were longer when participants were being overpaid, compared to when they were underpaid
or equally paid. Study 2 extended these findings by demonstrating that people required more time to make satisfaction judgments
when they were overpaid in the context of a close relationship (i.e., in which the conflict between hedonic and concerns for
the other’s need should be stronger) than when overpaid in the context of a non-close relationship. Theoretical implications
regarding the social-cognitive processes underlying reactions to overpayment are discussed. 相似文献
14.
People have a need to Belief in a Just World (BJW) in which people get what they deserve. When people are confronted with
an event which threatens this BJW (e.g. when they witness a girl falling victim to rape), people try to maintain their existing
beliefs, for example, by blaming the innocent victim for her ill fate. We argue that this defensive process of blaming innocent
victims in essence stems from self-regulatory failure. In accordance with this line of reasoning, our first experiment shows
that when self-regulatory resources were depleted (i.e. in the case of high ego-depletion) before BJW threatening information
describing an innocent victim of a rape crime, the effect of BJW threat on victim blaming amplified. Study 2 shows that when
self-regulation was facilitated by means of self-affirmation after the BJW threatening information, the effect of BJW threat
on victim blaming vanished. Taken together, our findings suggest that coping with BJW threats involve self-regulatory processes
leading to more or less defensive reactions (like blaming innocent victims). When people’s self-regulatory resources are depleted,
they react more negatively to innocent victims when they constitute a stronger threat to the BJW. Facilitating self-regulation,
by means of self-affirmation, enables people to cope with BJW threatening information, thereby inhibiting the urge to blame
innocent victims. 相似文献
15.
Tennessee State medical examiner reports of firearm fatalities classified as accidents involving victims aged 19 year or less from 1961 through 1988, were reviewed to evaluate circumstantial and contributing factors. A total of 225 were analyzed. The peak age for victims was 17 years, and there were more than five times more male than female victims. In Shelby County (Memphis), the racial distribution of fatalities was approximately that of the general population. Playing with a gun was the most frequent circumstance. The person responsible for pulling the trigger was equally likely to be a friend, a family member, or the victim. Head or neck were injured in most cases. The urban mortality rate was nearly twice that of the rural rate. More than half of the deaths in urban counties occurred indoors and involved handguns, whereas in rural counties only a third were due to handguns and the location was more often outdoors. Deaths in rural counties showed a seasonal variation that corresponded with the hunting season; by contrast, a peak in early summer was noted in the urban deaths. Defective guns or guns unsafe in design caused several deaths. (Semiautomatic pistols, which can be fired after unloading the ammunition magazine, are conspicuous examples of guns unsafe in design.) An important observation of this study is that medical examiners vary considerably in their classification of accidental manner, particularly when children are involved. Furthermore, medical examiner reports need to include much more information than is currently recorded if they are to be useful in guiding public policy to reduce firearm injuries. 相似文献
16.
A coordinated community response system to the help-seeking behaviors of domestic violence victims is critical to minimize the impact of violent events and to educate the public, so that safe and effective conflict management skills may replace violent responses. The focus for the present study is to identify and analyze victims’ choices of law enforcement assistance in stopping the violence and/or aid through the services of the regional family violence center. Some victims select legal channels of support; others rely exclusively on social service support, and others seek assistance from both sources. Characteristics of victims whose cases followed two types of help-seeking behavior patterns—legal support or social support–were determined through archived data from both the records of a regional family violence center (FVC) ( n=258) and domestic violence incident reports of a police department serving a city of approximately 200,000 citizens ( n=127). Findings indicate that African American victims more frequently sought protection through law enforcement sources than they did through family violence center services, and the reverse was true for Euro-Americans. 相似文献
17.
Conclusions The results of the 1993 survey can be interpreted as a validation of the findings of the 1983 study. Most of the common reactions
to critical incidents that were documented in the earlier study were also reported in the later survey. It is certainly of
interest to note that not only were most of the same reactions reported 10 years later, they were also reported in roughly
the same frequency. This supports the idea that although what constitutes a critical incident varies from person to person,
the reactions to critical incidents are fairly predictable.
The number of surveys completed and returned in this study was over twice as great as the number returned in the 1983 study
(a 49% return rate as compared to a 22% retum rate in 1983). This significant increase in the number of surveys returned suggests
a greater awareness by officers regarding critical incidents. It may also suggest an increased willingness on the part of
officers to identify reactions to critical incidents as predictable and “normal”. This shift in perception compared to perceptions
in 1983 may be a result of the educational efforts of the Critical Incident Response Team members in Apprentice Police Officer
Training, In-Service Training, and other informal training over the last 10 years. The core of that training has been to communicate
the concept that reactions to critical incidents are normal, temporary, and treatable. It is hoped that training can continue
to provide this “inoculation effect” which seems to reduce the possible negative, long-term impact of critical incidents on
police officers who have been exposed to such situations. 相似文献
18.
The major topics of this overview article are as follow: (i) A distinction is made between justice and deservedness. Suffered
harm and loss may be judged undeserved with respect to the victim's prior behavior, prior life, and personality without the
implication that a victimizer is identified who acted unjustly. (ii) The perception of injustice is outlined as a subjective
construction that has two major components: The subject selects and applies one of several rules or principles of justice
applicable to the case and the subject is attributing responsibility to an agent or agency who is not the victim himself or
herself. It is argued that in every case there are several options for the selection of a rule of justice and for the attribution
of responsibility. (iii) Several so-called risk factors of critical life events as unforeseeability, uncontrollability of
events, and nonnormativeness of events are reinterpreted as factors relevant in the subjective construction of injustice.
(iv) Several coping strategies reported in the literature on critical life events such as palliative comparisons, self-blame,
or search for meaning are interpreted as efforts to avoid feelings of injustice. (v) On the basis of empirical data a closer
look is taken on self-blame which, psychologically, is a heterogeneous construct. The effects of self-blame depend on its
function: When used strategically as a means to avoid feelings of uncontrollability of one's fate or to reduce feelings of
hostility toward a victimizer, it may have adaptive functions. When imposed by the subjective view of the facts it may result
in feelings of guilt, shame, or anger about an avoidable mistake, feelings that are not adaptive but rather add to the negative
balance caused by the primary loss or harm. (vi) Concerning search for meaning, a distinction is proposed between (a) grasping
the meaning in the sense of understanding motives, goals, and reasons of the victimizer and (b) discovering and construing
some gains in the consequences of a victimization, gains which may be material, social, experiential, self- and personality-related,
or developmental. While finding meaning of the second kind improves the loss-gain balance and tends to reduce the perceived
injustice the first kind of grasping meaning may sometimes result in intensifying feelings of injustice, especially when motives,
goals, and reasons of the victimizer are considered as selfish, malevolent, or uncaring. The article ends with a discussion
of the ambivalence of a victim's status which establishes some entitlements for compensation and care but also bears the risk
of secondary victimization by negative social reactions. 相似文献
19.
The goal of this exploratory study was to examine correlates of sexual assault disclosure and social reactions in female victims with and without drinking problems. An ethnically diverse sample of sexual assault survivors was recruited from college, community, and mental health agencies. Ethnic minority women were less likely to disclose assault, and women with a greater number of traumatic life events disclosed assault more often. Although there were no differences in disclosure likelihood by drinking status; of those disclosing, problem drinkers told more support sources and received more negative and positive social reactions than nonproblem drinkers. Correlates of receiving negative social reactions were similar for normal and problem drinkers; however, negative social reactions to assault disclosure were related to more problem drinking for women with less frequent social interaction. Implications for future research and possible support interventions with problem-drinking victims are provided. 相似文献
20.
Negative observer reactions towards victims may be related to people’s expectations of the characteristics and demeanor of an ideal victim. We examined how expressed emotion, victim sex, and type of victimization influence observers’ perceptions of victim credibility, victim character, and harm. Our hypothesis was that angry victims, male victims, and victims of sexual violence are perceived less positively than sad victims, female victims, and victims of physical violence. Additionally, we anticipated that expectancy violations following expressed agentic/high status, or passive/low-status emotions of the victim would lead to negative reactions. Participants ( N?=?335) read a written victim impact statement, by a male or female victim of a sexual or physical assault, in which anger or sadness was expressed. The results show that observers generally respond more negatively to male victims than to female victims, and to victims expressing anger rather than sadness. However, a two-way interaction between expressed emotion and type of crime revealed that expressed emotion only significantly influences character derogation and victim credibility in cases of physical violence. Finally, emotion expectancy violations based on ex-ante expectations lead to derogation and diminished credibility. The discussion focuses on how emotion expectancy violations seem intimately tied to stereotype-ridden features of victimization. 相似文献
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