Introspectiveness and adolescent development

This study introduces a measure of introspectiveness for adolescents aged 12–18 and investigates its association with several aspects of adolescent development. Introspectiveness—the tendency to deveote diffuse attention to thoughts and feelings about the self—increased during adolescence, and may be stimulated by discontinuities associated with adolescent development, other kinds of discontinuities, and parental introspectiveness. Also, introspectiveness was positively associated with depression, anxiety, and physical symptoms, and may help explain the increase in symptom reporting during this developmental period. Highly introspective adolescents participated in more artistic activities and spent more time alone than those low on introspectiveness. Finally, highly introspective college students chose self-oriented academic majors, which may have implications for future occupational development. Together these results suggest that the concept of introspectiveness may increase our understanding of several important aspects of this developmental period.This research was supported by grants from the William T. Grant Foundation, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, and NIMH Grant No. 39590. An earlier version was presented at the 1984 annual convention of the American Sociological Association in San Antonio, Texas.Research interests include medical sociology and health and illness behavior among adolescents and older adults.Received a Ph.D. from Stanford University. Research interests include medical sociology, health care policy, and aging research.Received an M.A. from Rutgers University. Research interests include adolescent development and therapy.     

Behavior problems of handicapped adolescent female students

Adolescent girls aged 12 through 16 years, identified as either educable mentally retarded, behaviorally disordered, learning disabled, or nonhandicapped, were rated by their teachers on the Behavior Problem Checklist. Analysis of these ratings revealed significant differences for pupil category, Behavior Problem Checklist dimension, and category-by-dimension interaction. Behaviorally disordered students showed a greater degree of maladjustment than the retarded and nonhandicapped students on all four checklist dimensions, and exceeded the learning disabled on three dimensions (not Personality Problem). Implications for further research and special educational practices based on the present findings are discussed.Received Ed.D. from University of Virginia. Main interest is the handicapped adolescent.Received Ms.Ed. from Northern Illinois University. Main interest is emotionally disturbed children.Received Ed.D. from University of Virginia. Main interest is educational programming.Received Ms.Ed. from Northern Illinois University. Main interest is educational research.     

Crisis and vulnerability in adolescent development

It was argued that adolescent development should be studied from a more relational and structural approach (cf. Damon and Hart, 1982). In the first study of 5986 Chinese students, two distinct self-concept dimensions were included and their relations to one another and to locus of control, extraversion, and test anxiety were compared across six primary and secondary grade levels. This was in contrast to past studies' focus on the overall change of single or global aspects of self-concept. It was found that self-concept of academic ability increased with age, whereas self-concept of appearance decreased with age. Both self-concepts were closely related. Locus of control was more related to self-concept appearance, and test anxiety to self-concept of academic ability. Extraversion was related only to self-concept of appearance. These relations existed mainly in adolescents (especially girls) and not in younger children. Midadolescence was found to be a critical period as both self-concepts showed quite drastic changes. Tentative evidence showed that the transition from sixth to seventh grade tended to have a dampening effect on the two self-concepts. Results from a second study of 701 secondary school students that included more self-concept dimensions lent further support to the findings of the first study. Crisis and vulnerability in adolescent development are discussed in the qualitative analysis of the relational changes.Ph.D. in social psychology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. Research interests: Value and self-concept development, parental infuences, and deviant behaviors.     

Same-sex attraction and successful adolescent development

This study investigated the relation of adolescent same-sex attraction to “successful development” (Baltes, P. B., Am. Psychol. 32:366–380, 1997). Based on a survey of high-school adolescents, four groups were defined according to the nature of self-reported sexual attraction: exclusively heterosexual (EHA; n=3594); mostly heterosexual (MHA; n=124); bisexual (BSA; n=122); and same-sex attraction (SSA, n=36). Groups were compared across multiple intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental domains based on mean group differences and prevalence of developmental assets. Although the EHA group reported the most positive status across domains, several similarities among the groups were noted. Groups did not differ significantly in friendship quality and perceptions of school climate in the mean group comparisons, as well as academic orientation and (low) peer victimization in the assets-based analyses. Implications for successful development among adolescents reporting same-sex attraction are discussed along with the integration of the study of non-heterosexual youth into mainstream adolescent research.

Trends in dating patterns and adolescent development

A developmental scheme has been proposed which recognizes clusters of variables of adolescent behavior in the area of heterosexual object relationship development. These periods-(I) stage of sexual awakening (13–15), (II) stage of practicing (14–17), (III) stage of acceptance (16–19), (IV) stage of permanent object choice (18–25)-reflect the developing capacity of object relationship and are a a recapitulation on a higher level of functioning of the separation-individuation operations of the infant. The dating patterns at these levels of development provide a sensitive indication of growth, and unworked-through development is reflected in immature patterns. The current trends in dating described are considered to be a function of the prolongation of adolescence and not pathological.Graduate of the Chicago Medical School, psychiatric training at The University of Michigan Neuropsychiatric Institute and the Institute for Juvenile Research, Chicago. Major interests research in child and adolescent development and the affective disorders.Graduate of Woman's Medical College, Philadelphia. Psychiatric training at the Menninger Foundation and the Psychosomatic and Psychiatric Institute, Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago. Pediatric training at the University of Iowa Hospitals. Current interest child development.     

The ecology of adolescent activity and experience

Twenty-five adolescents reported their daily activities and the quality of their experiences for a total of 753 times during a normal week, in response to random beeps transmitted by an electronic paging device. In this sample adolescents were found to spend most of their time either in conversation with peers or in watching television. Negative affects were prevalent in most activities involving socialization into adult roles. Television viewing appears to be an affectless state associated with deviant behavior and antisocial personality traits. The research suggests the importance of a systemic approach which studies persons' activities and experiences in an ecological context. The experiential sampling method described in this paper provides a tool for collecting such systemic data.The research reported herein was partially funded through PHS Grant 5-R01MH-22883-03.Received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. Latest books includeBeyond Boredom and Anxiety (1975), dealing with the experience of enjoyment, andThe Creative Vision (1976), about problem finding in art.Current interests are problems of juvenile delinquency and aging.Received her Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. Research interests include the sociology of science and the role of women.     

Early adult psychological consequences for males of adolescent pregnancy and its resolution

Using data front 2522 young men who were first surveyed as 7th-grade students in Houston, Texas in 1971, we examined the psychological consequences in early adulthood of having a girlfriend become pregnant in adolescence. By age 21, 15% of the young men were involved in a nonmarital pregnancy. Rates were higher for blacks (24%) than for whites (12%) or Hispanics (16%). Among whites, most adolescent pregnancies were ended by abortion (58%). Adolescent pregnancies to blacks most often resulted in single parenthood (56%). Hispanics tended to have the child, and marry or live together (55%). Consistent with the life course perspective, young men involved in adolescent pregnancies were more psychologically distressed as young adults than those who did not have a girlfriend become pregnant in adolescence. The greater distress in adulthood is not simply a function of accelerated role transitions, because men whose girlfriends had abortions are also distressed, and those who let their girlfriends assume major parenting responsibility are no less distressed than those who became fathers and married or lived with their girlfriends. Subgroup comparisons revealed that psychological distress levels of young black men were not influenced by adolescent pregnancy.This paper was presented at the North Central Sociological Association meetings, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, April 1988, and reflects equal authorship. This research was supported by a grant (APR000940-02) to Dr. Robbins by the Adolescent Family Life Program, Office of Adolescent Pregnancy Programs, Office of Population Affairs. The data were collected under a grant (R01DA02497) to Howard B. Kaplan by the National Institute on Drug Abuse.Graduate student in sociology at The University of Kentucky where she recently completed a master's thesis on adolescent fatherhood.Completed doctorate in sociology at the University of Michigan in 1984. This research is part of a larger study of the psychosocial causes, resolution, and consequences of adolescent pregnancy.     

Representation of the female body by early and late adolescent girls

A group of 153 sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade girls and a group of 95 college women produced human figure drawings. Comparisons were made between early and late adolescents and, within the group of early adolescents, between pre- and postmenarcheal girls, of the frequency with which secondary sexual characteristics, namely, breasts, were explicitly depicted on the female figures. Early adolescents were found to represent breasts more explicitly than late adolescents. Parallel results were found for pre- and postmenarcheal girls in the seventh grade. The results suggest that early adolescents emphasize and are preoccupied with body parts whose changes signal the beginning of puberty, while later adolescents, being past the period of most rapid growth and change in body contour, have a more integrated body image.This research was supported in part by Wellesley College Faculty Development Awards to each of the two authors.Received Ph.D. in psychology from Clark University. Major interests are clinical psychology and personality development. Correspondence should be addressed to this author.Received Ph.D. in psychology from Tufts University. Major interests are psychobiology and adolescent development.     

A closer look at adolescent sexual activity

This study of 1228 parochial students in the eastern United States answered questions about adolescent sexuality. Few of the students surveyed claimed that sex was forced or even pressured. Over half of the students reported going steady as their relationship status when experiencing their first intercourse. Another fourth reported that they were dating or knew each other well. Approximately one-fifth of the students reported that drugs or alcohol was used at the time of first sex and three-fourths of them had first sex at either their own home or a friend's home. Nearly half of the students wished they had waited longer before having sex, especially the females and the more religious students. One-half of the nonvirgin students in the sample reported having had only one sexual partner. The implications of this information for setting social policy, designing and implementing effective sex education programs are discussed.Received Ph.D. in family studies/family science, Brigham Young University in 1994. Research and writing interests include adolescent sexuality and related problems, character education, and parenting.serving a sabbatical at BUY—Hawaii currently. Received Ph.D. in psychology at Michigan State in 1966. Research interests concern gender issues, parenting, and adolescent problems.In 1978 received Ph.D. in social psychology from the University of Washington. Research interests include adolescent problems and social policy.     

Expectations regarding development during adolescence: Parental and adolescent perceptions

The aims of this study were (1) to compare the age-related expectations of parents and adolescents concerning the timing of achievement in a number of developmental tasks, (2) to examine whether personal characteristics of the adolescent affect developmental expectations, and (3) to examine whether discrepancies between the adolescents and the parents expectations are related to the amount of parent-adolescent conflict. The sample consisted of 508 families with adolescents (12–18 years old). During a home visit, a battery of questionnaires was administered individually to mothers, fathers, and adolescents. A new 24-item instrument to assess expectations for adolescents mastery of developmental tasks was developed for this study. Analyses showed that when the expectations of adolescents and those of their parents are compared at aggregate level, parents consistently indicate later ages for the achievement of developmental tasks than adolescents. Although parents have later timetables, parents and adolescents have strikingly similar views of the sequence in which achievement of developmental tasks should occur. The adolescents age appears to be the most potent predictor of developmental timetables, followed by gender, pubertal timing, and temperament, respectively. The amount of conflict within the parent-adolescent relationship was associated with differences in developmental expectations. The utility of the new instrument for research and clinical work is discussed.This research was supported by a grant from the Ministry of Health and Culture (PCOJ).     

Identity development and formal operations as sources of adolescent egocentrism

The self-concerns and social expectations that are part of the identity development process may lead adolescents to think that others survey them for signs of individuality. The novelty of identity development may also lead to feelings of uniqueness and invulnerability. The imaginary audience and personal fable may therefore stem from identity development and not from the emergence of formal operations. In this study high school and first-year university students (N=255) completed measures of adolescent egocentrism, identity development, and formal operations. Egocentrism was moderately associated with higher scores on identity crisis and identity achievement, and with lower scores on identity diffusion. There was no significant relationship between egocentrism and the emergence of formal operations.Received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Victoria. His main interests are in personality, social and developmental psychology.Currently completing a master's degree at Lakehead University. Interests are in social and clinical psychology.     

Parental influences on the development of adolescent autonomy and identity

Two studies were undertaken to examine parental influences on autonomy and identity development. In Study 1, 262 adolescents in seventh and eleventh grades were given Kurtines's autonomy measure, Simmons's identity measure, and Elder's questions regarding the adolescents' perceptions of their parents' autocratic, democratic, or permissive parenting styles. Study 2 was a replication with 168 subjects. Across both studies it was found that sex-role socialization is more influential for automony development than is either level of parental power or age. Both age and father's use of democracy were the most influential variables on identity development.Received Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota. Major interests are adolescent social cognition and social development.Major interests are adolescent social cognition and social development.Major interests are adolescent social cognition and social development.Received Ph.D. from the University of Cincinnati. Major interests are cognitive development and theories of personality.     

Delinquent behaviors and male adolescent development: A preliminary study

Commonly identified developmental tasks of male adolescence were examined for their relationship to delinquent behavior during adolescence among a general sample of 11-to 18-year-old males (N=337). Evaluations of the prevalence and mean level of delinquent acts across the age groups confirms previous suggestions that delinquent behavior follows the adolescent years quite closely. Measures of three primary developmental domains—family relations, social relations, and educational/vocational orientations—were taken and correlated with delinquent behavior across three substages of adolescence. The patterns of correlations suggest there is support for the view that a substantial portion of delinquent behavior is tied to struggles with adolescent development tasks.This work was conducted while the author was a Clinical Research Training Fellow in Adolescence (funded by T32 MH 14668) at the Institute for Psychosomatic and Psychiatric Research and Training, Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center, in a program also sponsored by the Departments of Behavioral Science and Psychiatry, University of Chicago and the Adolescent Program of the Illinois State Psychiatric Institute. It is based, in part, on a presentation made at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, August 1985.Dr. Tolan received his Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of Tennessee in 1983. Primary research interests are delinquency, prevention, and families.     

Overcoming barriers to adolescent research on pubertal and reproductive development

Perhaps the greatest barriers to conducting adolescent research on pubertal and reproductive behavior involve obtaining permission from schools and parents to conduct the study in the first place. This article addresses these barriers, focusing on (a) possible reasons why such research has languished, with a focus on the discomfort of adults and on negative societal messages; (b) design of reproductively oriented adolescent studies; (c) strategies for recruiting schools and families; (d) procedures for testing in the schools; and (e) methodological considerations of such barriers.This article was prepared while the author was a Visiting Scholar at the Russell Sage Foundation. The foundation's support and the generous assistance of the National Institutes of Health (NICHD), and the W. T. Grant Foundation, are appreciated.Received PLD from University of Pennsylvania. Research interests are girl's psychological adaptation to pubertal change, biosocial aspects of female reproductive events, development of biological and socially at risk children and adolescents.     

Identity development and perceived parental behavior as sources of adolescent egocentrism

Adolescent egocentrism involves heightened self-consciousness and feelings of uniqueness (O. Elkind [1967], Egocentrism in Adolescence, Child Development, Vol. 38, pp. 1025–1034). Some studies have found that adolescent egocentrism is associated with identity development, and other studies have found that egocentrism is associated with perceptions of parental behavior. The purposes of this investigation were to simultaneously examine the associations between these variables (1) to determine whether identity development and perceived parental behavior display separate or overlapping associations with adolescent egocentrism, and (2) to clarify the directions of the relationships between these variables. Four hundred eighteen subjects from 12 to 21 years of age completed established measures of identity development, perceived parental behavior, and egocentrism. Identity development was more strongly and consistently related to egocentrism (egocentric adolescents tended to be identity achieved or to be experiencing an identity crisis), whereas perceived parental behavior accounted for little additional variance. The results also clarify differences between the two primary measures of adolescent egocentrism (the Adolescent Egocentrism Scale and Imaginary Audience Scale).Received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Victoria. His main interests are in personality, and social and developmental psychology.     

Some thoughts on school size and its effects on adolescent development

What do we know about the effects of school size on adolescent development? This article addresses this issue, based on a review of the available evidence. While this evidence is sketchy, it does offer three important hypotheses to guide our efforts to understand the human ecology of adolescence. First, school size matters, particularly to academically marginal students. Second, school size is not a simple linear effect. Rather, it involves a “threshold effect,” so that increases in size above roughly 500 (in a secondary school) do not have an appreciable effect. Third, recent trends have “conspired” against youth by simultaneously producing larger schools — so that most schools are above the size threshold — and “forcing” ever larger numbers of academically marginal students into these secondary schools. This article explores these hypotheses and their significance for youth development.     

Family interaction patterns and the development of social conceptions in the adolescent

The relationship between family interaction and the formation of family and life conceptions in adolescence was studied in an interactional framework. It was hypothesized that openness and constructiveness in family communication and the expression of marital conflicts are positively related to number and content of family and life conceptions. A sex difference was also hypothesized for these conceptions. Fifty-three 15-year-old girls and boys participated in the study. They were interviewed individually and afterward presented with a questionnaire on their family ratings. In addition, most parents—40 mothers and 30 fathers—answered their own questionnaires. The ratings of family interaction by adolescents and parents, respectively, correlated positively, indicating the reliability of the adolescents' ratings. The hypotheses were supported by the results. The richness of family-centered communication and the open expression of marital conflicts together with a positive emotional atmosphere were crucial to the number and content of the adolescents' social conceptions, especially family conceptions.The study is a part of a research project that deals with value orientation in adolescence. The study was supported by a grant to Dr. M. L. Rauste-von Wright from the Council for Social Science Research, the Academy of Finland. The author wishes to express her gratitude to Dr. M. L. Rauste-von Wright.Ph. Lic. in Psychology from University of Turku. Research interests include social development in adolescence, social cognition, and family interaction.     

Perceptions of child rearing and self-concept development during the early adolescent years

In order to investigate the relationship between aspects of child rearing and adolescent self-concept, 130 males and females in grades 7, 8, and 9 completed Schaefer's Children's Report of Parental BehaviorInventory (CRPBI) and Coopersmith's Self-Esteem Inventory. Correlations between the Acceptance/Rejection dimension of the CRPBI and the various self-esteem subscores were positive. Correlations between the self-esteem scores and the Psychological Autonomy/Psychological Control dimension of the CRPBI were negative. The correlations were stronger for perceptions of mothers' as opposed to fathers' child-rearing practices. Analyses of variance indicated that ninth-graders perceived their parents as less accepting than seventhor eighth-graders. High self-esteem adolescents perceived their parents as more accepting, as using less psychological control, and as not being overly firm in making and enforcing rules and regulating the adolescents' behavior. The results support the contention that optimal self-concept development takes place in an atmosphere of acceptance that allows the adolescent autonomy and the opportunity to learn competencies.This study is based in part on a Master's thesis submitted by the first author to the Graduate School, Syracuse University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the M.S. degree.Department of Psychology, Syracuse University. Major research interests are family influences on the adolescent.Department of Psychology, Syracuse University. Major research interests are adolescent selfconcept and identity development and sex roles.