美国平等就业机会委员会在反性骚扰法中的作用及启示

美国平等就业机会委员会在美国反性骚扰法制中扮演着重要的角色。美国的经验说明,建立专门机构反对性骚扰是必要的,也是可行的。我国在构建反性骚扰法制的过程中,可以借鉴美国的经验。     

美国有关性别歧视的判例研究

长期以来,在美国的法律制度、理论研究和实践运用中,人仅指男人。第14修正案公然剥夺妇女的选举权,表明了美国宪法对女性的制度性歧视。在美国,消除性别歧视的最初目标,就是使妇女实际上获得人的主体地位。美国宪法史上两性平等权的发展历程,同时亦是妇女争取享有平等宪法权、争取做人的权利的历程。本文将通过对美国历史上有关性别歧视之典型判例的研究,揭示女性曾受到的不公平对待,批判历史传统、社会习俗乃至法律制度对妇女权利的漠视,阐明司法在实现性别平等目标中应当发挥的作用。     

美国《1964年民权法》与女性平等就业权

美国历史上就业性别歧视非常严重，联邦最高法院在几个重要的宪法判例中明确否定女性享有和男性平等的就业权。美国《1964年民权法》的通过真正开启了女性就业权平等保护的大门。“性别”以一种极为奇特的方式被写进旨在解决种族歧视问题的民权法案中，从而与种族、肤色、宗教和来源国一起成为被禁止的歧视理由。虽然“性别”被写进《1964年民权法》并没有真正反映当时美国社会对女性地位和社会角色的主流观念，但该法第七章一经实施还是对女性就业权的平等实现产生了非同寻常的作用。     

内地妇女平等就业权的立法保护

尽管内地女性在就业中的受歧视现象随着社会经济和文明程度的发展获得了很大的提高,但在国有机关、企事单位中,女性的就业平等权受严重侵犯的情形仍然大量存在。本文深入比较世界各地区关于妇女平等就业权的保护机制,从而提出加强立法,明确规定妇女不适合从事的工作岗位和不同情况下不同程度地对受歧视对象的保护等建议,从法律层面提高对内地妇女的就业平等权的保护。     

从社会性别的视角看我国立法中的性别不平等

我国法律对女性权益的保护,在相当程度上,还停留在形式平等的层面上,立法中还存在对女性极益保护的各种歧视。我国应完善立法,以达到男女权利实质平等。     

英国反就业性别歧视法律制度研究

英国普通法并不禁止歧视行为,但随着英国加入各种国际组织及国内平权运动的高涨,在20世纪70年代后,英国对于禁止就业性别歧视制定了大量的法律,对于同工同酬、性骚扰、母性保护等进行了详尽和周密的规定.此外,这些法律还规定了直接歧视、间接歧视、骚扰和受害等四种歧视形态,禁止在雇佣关系中各个阶段的任何歧视.为了有效地防止就业歧视,英国依据<平等法>成立了人权与平等机会委员会,在应对就业歧视问题上扮演了重要角色.     

论我国公民平等工作权的宪法保护

我国公民平等工作权的保护力度不足,这种情况不利于维护我国宪法的权威,不利于维护稳定的法治秩序,也不符合平等工作权保护的国际化潮流。公民平等工作权需要宪法保护有种种原因。应当从我国实际情况出发,借鉴其它国家的经验,加强对公民平等工作权的宪法保护,为此需要从完善宪法、宪法性法律和加强宪法司法工作方面采取有效的措施。     

美国女权主义法学平等与差异观研究

女权主义者由于受到后现代思潮的影响,否定统一、抽象的平等标准,不赞同把两性是否存在差异作为讨论平等问题的基点,但实际上后现代女权主义法学更加关注差异问题,并且拓展了差异的含义和范围。通过对平等与差异观的研究我们可以看出各女权主义法学流派之间并不是简单的批判和否定,从激烈纷繁的辩争中我们可以发现各流派关于平等和差异的讨论是一种辩证的否定之否定的关系。     

美国性骚扰法律制度及其借鉴意义

性骚扰是不受欢迎的带有性色彩的言行,是一种非法的性歧视。依美国判例,性骚扰不必源于性的目的,其内容不必是直接的表示;同时,性骚扰行为者在主观上应当是有过错的,受害者在主观上须为不欢迎骚扰行为。构成可诉的性骚扰行为其损害后果须达到严重的程度。依美国最新判例,同性之间也可以构成性骚扰;雇主对员工中的上级职员的性骚扰行为承担民事责任。美国的性骚扰法律制度对我国的立法具有一定的借鉴意义,如公法上的规定并不排除私法的适用,性骚扰的含义应当包含性别歧视,雇主责任应当在立法上得以确立,立法者应当在道德规范和法律规范中寻找平衡点。     

The Study of Gender in the Courts: Keeping Bias at Bay

I am pleased to introduce the following two companion papers on gender in the United States Eighth Circuit courts. They emerge from a partnership of social scientists and legal professionals, spurred by a national movement to understand influences of gender on the judicial system. These studies reflect a majority of voices in the Eighth Circuit bench and bar– women and men who work in and preside over the federal courts of seven states. This project yielded a wealth of data, the analysis of which reveals ways both subtle and overt by which gender bias threatens fairness in the courts. Underscoring the importance of this and similar projects, Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor once stated, "by acknowledging and not trivializing the effects of gender bias on reasonable women and men, courts can work toward ensuring that neither men nor women will have to run a gauntlet of abuse in return for the privilege of being allowed to work and make a living" (as quoted in the Final Report of the Eighth Circuit Gender Fairness Task Force [ECGFTF] 1997, 8).     

Gender Bias in Attributions of Responsibility for Abuse

The bulk of previous research investigating attributions of responsibility in victimization scenarios have portrayed the assailant as male and the victim as female. The present study varied gender of the participant, gender of the assailant, and gender of the victim in order to examine gender bias in attributions of responsibility in abuse scenarios. Male and female participants were presented with scenarios depicting an abusive interaction between two males, two females, or a male and a female character and then made judgements of responsibility either with or without the narratives present. The results indicated that attributions made by females were biased against male victims of a male assailant when judging actions of the assailant. Attributions made by females and, to a lesser degree, attributions made by males were biased against the victim when the assailant and the participant were of the same gender and attributions of assailants' actions were made without the narrative present. In the analysis of attributions of actions of the victim, males attributed more responsibility to male than female victims. It is concluded that gender of all parties may be an important consideration when judging responsibility in victimization scenarios.     

公私领域划分与国际法中的性别歧视

国际法通过公私领域的划分确定其管辖范围,并避免干涉主权国家的内政。女性主义者指出,这种划分包含着对女性的规范性歧视和结构性歧视。国际法的基本术语如国家、主权等,排除了国际法对国内违反人权事项的管辖,维护了男性在国内的特权地位。在国际人权法领域,在确定是否给予女性以人权保护时,也是以维护男性利益为出发点。女性主义方法揭示了国际法中存在的性别歧视,但该方法也存在许多问题,需要加以注意。     

Perceptions of Gender Bias in the Promotional Process of a Detention Staff

With growing numbers of female staff in correctional settings, issues relating to promotional fairness are certain to occur. Historically, female detention staff held perceptions of being discriminated against in the promotional process due to gender biases. However, there is almost no recent examination of these perceptions. The current study addresses this shortcoming in the literature by using a sample of 362 sworn detention deputies ranked Sergeant and below at a large southern-central United States jail. Contrary to the data from a generation ago, more male detention staff perceive gender biases in the promotional process than females, and report that promotional decisions are based on arbitrary and informal factors. Women are more likely to perceive promotions to be fair and based on merit. Results are discussed in relation to two theoretical perspectives: the importation-differential experiences model, and the work-role prisonization model.     

Understanding the Judicial Role in Addressing Gender Bias: A View from the Eighth Circuit Federal Court System

The role of trial judges in the litigation process is frequently debated. Are judges to be dispassionate adjudicators, disengaged referees in a sport in which attorneys compete? Or are they charged with a more active role in promoting the substance, form, and process of justice? In the present paper, we explore the judicial role in addressing gender bias in federal litigation, using data gathered for the Eighth Circuit Gender Fairness Task Force. The federal judges of this circuit were surveyed about their experiences, observations, and opinions of gender-biased conduct. Results indicated that although judges viewed judicial intervention as an appropriate response to gender bias, they had little personal experience with intervention in such a situation. Fur thermore, when specific hypothetical scenarios were presented, they generally agreed that the described conduct was inappropriate but offered little consensus regarding the best course of action for an attorney or judge confronted with such behavior. The Eighth Circuit data thus provide the basis for expanded understanding of the conduct at issue, the options for action in response, and the persistent discrepancy in viewpoints on gender bias and the judicial role.     

A Comparison of Law Enforcement Divorce Rates with Those of Other Occupations

It is a common belief that the divorce rate for police officers is higher than that of the general population. This belief is commonly held in spite of the fact that there is no empirical research supporting such a belief. To compare the divorce rate of law enforcement personnel with the rates for other occupations, we analyzed data from the 2000 U.S. Census. The results of this analysis indicate that the divorce rate for law enforcement personnel is lower than that of the general population, even after controlling for demographic and other job-related variables.     

社会性别与婚姻暴力实证研究

婚姻暴力受害者多为女性。婚姻暴力循环会导致妇女面临更多经济与精神困惑,从而使妇女成为需要法律特别关注的弱势群体。我国应构建预防与制止婚姻暴力的社会措施与法律体系。在立法与执法中,应充分导入社会性别视角,才能有效保障妇女的合法权益。     

多角审视性别失衡与"缺失的女性"

性别失衡已成为我国一个严重的社会问题,性别失衡表现为人口不安全或人口自身状态恶化等危机的出现,而人口安全则是国家安全的重要的组成部分。形成性别失衡的原因复杂多样,其中深层原因是父系继承和女儿外嫁的隐性制度,根本原因是重男轻女,生男偏好的传统文化伦理因素,直接原因是产前胎儿性别鉴定和选择性别的人工终止妊娠手段的滥用。如果不及时预防和有效遏止,它引发未来的男性婚姻挤压和女性严重短缺等诸多社会矛盾,可能造成社会不稳定甚至动乱及危害国家人口安全等严重后果。对此,我们须通过多途径多手段提前干预和规制,如完善有关立法现有责任主体和相关责任追究制度、宣传倡导新型科学的生育文化、构建人口安全预警系统等,努力降低未来出生人口性别比和缓解我国男性婚姻挤压的矛盾。     

Assessing Cognitive Bias in Forensic Decisions: A Review and Outlook

In recent years, a number of studies have demonstrated that forensic examiners can be biased by task-irrelevant contextual information. However, concerns relating to methodological flaws and ecological validity attenuate how much the current body of knowledge can be applied to real-life operational settings. The current review takes a narrative approach to synthesizing the literature across forensic science. Further, the review considers three main issues: (i) primary research on contextual bias within forensic science; (ii) methodological criticisms of this research; (iii) an alternative perspective that task-irrelevant contextual information does not always lead to error. One suggestion for future research is outlined, which is that studies on contextual bias in forensic decisions should be conducted in collaboration between forensic scientists and cognitive psychologists. Only then can rigorous and ecological valid experiments be created that will be able to assess how task-irrelevant contextual information influences forensic analysis and judgments in operationally valid settings.