The tactical choices of police patrol officers

This article presents the results of an attempt to describe exhaustively the tactics chosen by police patrol officers when handling highly problematic situations. The observations were made in Denver, Colorado, and focused on domestic disputes and “stops” for violations of motor vehicle regulations. The study determined that thirty-three categories were required to describe adequately what police did in domestic disputes and fourteen for motor vehicle stops. Tactical choices were found to vary according to the stage of the encounter between police and public. Tactics at three stages of encounters— contact, processing, and exit—were mapped and the relations between choices at each stage determined. The article concludes with a brief analysis of the relationship between tactical choices and situational factors.     

Use of force by female police officers

Do female police officers use force at the same rate as male police officers? This research examined the use of force by officers in a large, suburban police department during a seven-year period (1993-1999). Use of force reports completed by departmental policy for each use-of-force incident (n = 1,863) and data on arrests (n = 31,778) were examined. A rate of force, defined as the number of use-of-force incidents per one hundred arrests, was computed for male and female officers for each type of force used. A suspect-injury rate, defined as the number of suspects injured per one hundred arrests, also was computed.Force was used in only a small percentage (5.9 percent) of the arrests made. Injury to the suspect (not including the effects of OC spray) occurred in an even smaller percentage (1.6 percent) of arrests, and injury to the suspect resulting in treatment at a hospital (generally, emergency room treatment) occurred in a still smaller percentage (0.7 percent) of arrests.No statistically significant difference between female and male officers was found in the overall rate of force or in the rate of unarmed physical force. Female officers had a lower rate of weapon use when all types of weapons were considered together (p. < 0.05), but not when the different types of weapons were considered individually. Female officers also had a lower rate of any suspect injury (p. < 0.05), but there was no statistically significant difference in the rate of suspect injury resulting in treatment at a hospital. The differences found, even when statistically significant, were small in absolute terms.     

Recruitment of female police officers in New York City

As part of a larger study, forty-two female police officers in New York City were asked to articulate their motivations for selecting police work as a career. The reasons given are presented, and comparisons are made with the reasons given in the few other studies of male and female officers. It is felt that a better understanding of the motivations behind this career choice will help the police agencies recruit more effectively and more appropriately select candidates for openings.     

Investigating perceptions of race and ethnic diversity among prospective police officers

Many have suggested police diversity will improve police-community relations, but research testing this hypothesis is inconclusive. We investigated perceptions of police race, ethnicity, and diversity in a heterogeneous sample of prospective police officers. Data are drawn from interviews with 42 criminal justice college students in the Southwestern United States, of which 15 were Hispanic, and who each wanted to become a police officer. Participants supported diversity in policing, and collectively expressed a belief that race plays a central role in policing today. Furthermore, participants expressed support for the ideals of both passive and active representative bureaucracy. Hispanics in the sample in particular anticipated they would positively affect police relations in Hispanic neighborhoods and encourage immigrants to cooperate with police.     

Production appraisal of police patrol

Due to the increase in public expenditures for police protection during the past decade, it has become increasingly important to accurately measure patrol and service productivity. This article reviews conventional patrol and service practices and offers specific suggestions for improvement of patrol productivity.     

Officer force versus suspect resistance: A gendered analysis of patrol officers in an urban police department

This study examined patrol officer use of force and exposure to resistance on a gendered basis in an urban police department. Using data from use of force reports for the year 2000, a weighted force factor value was calculated for each officer. These values were then compared by officer gender. The mean value for both females and males was positive, indicating a tendency to employ lower force levels in response to higher levels of resistance. The male officer weighted force factor value, however, was significantly larger than that for the females. Placed within the context of the use of force continuum, this result suggested that male officer use of force vis-à-vis subject resistance spanned a wider range. Alternatively, female officers could be viewed as operating within a narrower range of the force continuum. One interpretation of this finding was that female and male officers responded differentially to subject resistance levels.     

Maltreatment by police officers?

In January 1990 amnesty international stated a report concerning 128 cases of alleged torture by the police in Austria since december 1984. Our material consists of 31 cases, three case reports are given in detail. Problems of medical expertise are discussed. It may be difficult to rule out injuries which are caused by accident or self inflicted. Some methods of torture (certain kinds of asphyxia for example) may be impossible to trace.     

Professionalism and campus police officers

Survey research was conducted to examine the effects of education, perceptions of community attitudes, and career commitment upon overall job satisfaction of campus law enforcement officers in North Carolina. Thirteen (13) campus departments participated in the 1984 study. Findings revealed both significant and insignificant relationships. The attained level of post-secondary education was not significantly related to an officer’s perception of having his/her authority questioned, nor was education related to an officer’s feeling of boredom with the job. However, significant relationships were found between several variables including an officer’s willingness to recommend the job to another person and his/her perceptions of community attitudes and the rank of the officer and his/her commitment to the current position.(1)     

Police perceptions of spouse abuse: A comparison of male and female officers

The purpose of this article is to compare policewomen with policemen regarding their attitudes toward handling family fights, specifically, toward handling spouse abuse. Sixty-two policewomen responded to a questionnaire measuring their involvement, or professional concern about family fights. As hypothesized, policewomen scored significantly higher on this variable (r_pb = + .43). Although sample differences in education and other demographic variables accounted in part for this finding, police-officer gender correlated with involvement even when all other variables were controlled for. There was some evidence that identification with a feminist point-of-view and concern for the battered women were significant intervening variables that explained why policewomen scored higher on involvement. It was also found that policewomen and policemen differed in their perceptions of how policewomen handle family fights. Policemen tended to view policewomen as lacking assertiveness, while policewomen viewed themselves as more patient and understanding, and as less likely to escalate a conflict. The results of this study support the findings of an earlier study in which women in shelter homes described policewomen as more likely than male officers to be informative, to take time to listen, and to provide helpful information. It is suggested that the results of the current study could provide a basis for discussion among mixed groups of police officers concerning various approaches to handling family fights.     

Religiosity and stress for police officers

Much of the research which has been conducted to date regarding stress and police officers has focused on identifying the presence of stress, associating stress with specific stressors, and comparing levels of stress between police officers and members of other professions. This project focused on the influence of one potential mediator of stress—religious activity. Data were collected from a population of law enforcement officers from a medium sized city and from a comparison group of firefighters from the same city. The data indicate that religiosity has two factors (1) traditional beliefs and activities and (2) religious satisfaction and perceived influence of religion on subject’s everyday lives. The second factor was found to be negatively related to stress for police officers. As religious satisfaction and perceived influence increase, stress increases.     

Incident perception by British police officers

This study compared the perceptions of a group of experienced British police officers with those of a group of young British police officers and of a group of British civilians. Subjects were shown a videotape of an urban street corner scene which contained a number of staged incidents including criminal offenses, suspicious circumstances, and traffic offenses. They were asked to note down all the incidents which they perceived during the viewing of the videotape, No significant differences were found between the three groups in the total number of incidents identified. There was, however, a significant subject group by offense type interaction, with inexperienced police officers showing the highest reporting of traffic offenses and experienced police officers the lowest. In each group there was also an inverse relationship between the number of traffic offenses and criminal offenses/suspicious circumstances noted. This was particularly high in the inexperienced police officer group.     

Interim occupational activities of recalled police officers

The authors examine the interim occupational activities of a sample of police officers who were laid off from their department in 1980 due to budget considerations. Findings from the study indicate that: (1) laid off officers were anxious to return to their former positions; (2) a significant number of those employed during the layoff were in the field of private security; and (3) interest in law enforcement employment during the layoff was partly a function of the officers’ sex. Implications of these findings are examined and discussed. We wish to thank the Detroit Police Department, especially Chief William Hart for permission to undertake the study, Lieutenant Deborah Robinson for her invaluable assistance in collection of the data and the 94 recalled officers for their willingness to participate in the study. Analysis of the data and the conclusions drawn from it are solely the authors’ responsibility.     

The role of race in predicting job attitudes of patrol officers

This study examines the differences in selected work-related attitudes of black and white patrol officers in Detroit, Michigan, and Oakland, California. Previous research has noted significant differences in work-related attitudes between black and white employees. Results of this data revealed significant differences in such attitudes between black and white officers, as well as variations between the Detroit and Oakland samples. Findings from this study suggest that future studies of racial differences in occupational studies will need to be very specific as to the occupation and work environment studied.     

Attitudes of police officers toward their professional ethics

Professions are guided by codes of ethics to aid them in performance of their duties and to ensure maintenance of high standards of conduct. Police officers are faced with a maze of obligations in the performance of their official duties. The “Law Enforcement Code of Ethics” and “Canons of Police Ethics” were created to make explicit the conduct considered appropriate for police officers and to guide them in the performance of their duties.This study investigates how police officers in several police agencies view their professional ethics. Some of the broader questions examined in the study are the following: Do police officers have a clear understanding of the “Law Enforcement Code of Ethics” and the “Canons of Police Ethics?” Do they feel constrained by agency, societal, or other factors from behaving professionally? Do they consider their ethics adequate to guide professional conduct, and are they willing to abide by the principles? The responses indicate reliance on personal ethics in situations where standard police ethics are not clear, and suggest the need for further research in police ethics.