MDS use with crime scene data replicates poorly: response to Goodwill,Alison, and Humann (this issue) and Davis (this issue)

Abstract

Examinations of treatment attrition form an important – although sometimes neglected – component of evaluating a correctional programme's effectiveness in reducing recidivism. Previous research has identified offender characteristics that predict non-completion. This study investigated non-completion in 138 high-risk, violent male prisoners attending an intensive cognitive–behavioural programme. Almost one-third of men who commenced it did not complete the 7-month programme. Most asked to leave of their own accord, or were removed for ongoing offending. In contrast to previous research, no support was found for the hypothesis that those who terminated treatment prematurely were more in need of intervention than those who completed the programme; non-completers did not differ from completers on static estimates of criminal risk, PCL-R scores, demographic variables or self-report scales measuring dynamic risk factors. It was concluded that successful prediction using variables related to criminal risk and criminogenic need depends both on the characteristics of programme participants, and on contextual factors such as programme policies: when high-risk high needs offenders are a programme's target clientele, variables related to risk and need will have limited predictive utility. From a practice perspective, the programme was successful in retaining through to completion a relatively untreatable group: high-risk offenders with moderate to high PCL-R scores.     

The impact of pre-treatment responsivity and treatment participation on violent recidivism in a violent offender sample

This study assessed whether pre-treatment responsivity (psychopathy, motivation to attend treatment, denial and minimisation of offending behaviour, and feelings of guilt or shame) predicted violent recidivism and/or moderated the effectiveness of a violence intervention programme. Participants were 114 male violent offenders who were referred to a structured violent offender group treatment programme; 84 offenders commenced the programme. Results showed that treatment completion did not have a significant main effect on recidivism but that psychopathy scores moderated the effects of treatment. Offenders with high scores on the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) who were rated as having good engagement with treatment, or who completed treatment, had similar violent recidivism rates compared to offenders with low PCL:SV scores. In contrast, offenders with high PCL:SV scores who dropped out of treatment or were poorly engaged had significantly higher rates of violent recidivism. These findings indicate that treatment effectiveness could be enhanced, and greater reductions in recidivism achieved, if programmes find ways to engage and maintain psychopathic offenders in treatment.     

Managing correctional treatment for reduced recidivism: A meta‐analytic review of programme integrity

Purpose. Although issues surrounding programme integrity and implementation seem intuitively appealing as important contributors to effective correctional programming, they have been relatively ignored within the extant literature. The present meta‐analysis provided the first systematic examination of these issues by exploring their impact on recidivism reduction in correctional treatment programmes. Methods. A meta‐analysis was conducted on 273 tests of the effectiveness of correctional treatment programmes that were extracted from various human service programmes. Indicators of programme integrity reviewed included several management variables (i.e. selection, training and clinical supervision of service deliverers), evaluator involvement, presence of training manuals, monitoring of treatment delivery, and using a small sample of clients. Results. Overall, the meta‐analyses revealed that programme integrity provided an independent source of enhanced programme effectiveness, even when controls were introduced for other variables (e.g. involved evaluator and sample size). Conclusions. Consistent with previous research, the present study demonstrated that the positive contributions of programme integrity were limited to the enhancement of the effects of human service programmes consistent with the principles of risk, need, and general responsivity. However, the relatively poor reporting of programme integrity indicators within primary studies necessitates that evaluators and programme deliverers alike ensure that this information is included in future evaluations to provide an even greater understanding of the influences of integrity.     

Treating high-risk rapists in a New Zealand intensive prison programme

The focus of this article is on the pilot development and implementation of a prison-based intensive treatment programme for high-risk adult-victim rape offenders in New Zealand. Advances in actuarial risk assessment enabled the identification of a group of high-risk adult sex offenders for whom no dedicated treatment programme existed. Based on a review of the treatment literature for rapists, a pilot programme was developed called the Adult Sex Offender Treatment Programme (ASOTP). The programme, based on the risk–need–responsivity and cognitive behavioural therapy principles, also used an adaptation of Young's schema therapy to address personality responsivity issues and specific idiosyncratic schema associated with participant offence pathways identified by the Massachusetts Treatment Centre classification (Version 3 for rapists). Measures of responsivity and dynamic risk administered in the ASOTP indicated some success in addressing treatment needs for the pilot participants (n=10). The programme has subsequently been expanded across prison specialist treatment unit sites and delivered to a further 52 participants. Although intermediate measures continue to indicate change in dynamic risk, recidivism outcome evaluations have not yet been possible, due to low numbers of paroled participants.     

Introduction

Abstract

This article aims to review the effectiveness of the “Reasoning and Rehabilitation” programme in reducing recidivism. Sixteen evaluations (involving 26 separate comparisons) were located in which experimental and control groups were compared. A meta-analysis showed that, overall, there was a significant 14% decrease in recidivism for programme participants compared with controls. This programme was effective in Canada, the USA, and the UK. It was effective in community and institutional settings, and for low risk and high-risk offenders. Smaller and larger evaluation studies, and older and newer studies, concluded that the programme was effective. Future evaluations should use larger samples, randomized controlled trials and better measures of recidivism (including self-reports, numbers, types and costs of offences committed).     

Using clinical variables to evaluate treatment effectiveness in programmes for sexual offenders

Abstract

Typically, sex offender programmes are evaluated using recidivism, a distal outcome measure. This paper proposes that sex offender programmes also incorporate proximal variables to evaluate treatment effectiveness. Proximal variables assess within treatment changes immediately following the intervention. To demonstrate this approach, the effectiveness of a sex offender treatment programme is evaluated using proximal variables, specifically locus of control, empathy, cognitive distortions and acceptance of responsibility. We provide the findings of this evaluation and discuss the implications of this approach. In particular, we conclude with the importance of identifying relevant treatment targets and selecting suitable proximal measures of those targets in evaluating treatment effectiveness.     

How to train your dragon: an introduction to the special issue on treatment programmes for high-risk offenders

The plot of the popular movie How to Train Your Dragon includes several features that are paralleled in the efforts of programme designers and treatment providers who work with the highest risk offenders in criminal justice systems. This introduction to the special feature on programmes for high-risk offenders notes that there are important differences in how treatments are provided for offenders with varying levels of risk, need, and responsivity. It asks if what is known about effective offender intervention – much of it derived from moderately risky offenders – applies to those who are thought to be at high risk of new criminal activity. It observes that the relative lack of intervention theory for these offenders provides an important justification for a feature that focuses primarily on describing a range of these interventions and their theoretical underpinnings. The papers that follow are then introduced.     

Every session counts: The differential impact of previous programmes and current programme dosage on offender recidivism

Purpose. The present study examined the impact of current treatment dosage on recidivism among offenders. Methods. Using a sample of dropouts from a community treatment programme, current treatment dosage and past completed programmes were used to predict criminal recidivism. Results. After statistically controlling for risk levels, only current dosage was predictive of recidivism. Conclusions. Offenders’ current direction, indicated by current dosage, is central to reducing recidivism. Strategies for offenders completing treatment sessions are discussed.     

Measuring the subjective perceptions of risks and rewards of Chinese juvenile thieves

Offenders’ readiness to engage in changes that will reduce their risk of reoffending is now recognized to be as important as the design and delivery of programmes that support such change. Interest is growing in both how to increase engagement in change processes, and how to measure any improvements in engagement. This study evaluated the effects of a brief offending-focused motivational interviewing (MI) intervention on reconviction in male prisoners serving sentences for diverse crimes. Men who undertook MI were significantly less likely to be reconvicted than those who did not. The results also served to validate a stage-based measure of readiness to change derived from Prochaska and DiClemente's Transtheoretical Model. Prisoners who were offered MI increased their readiness to change by an average of one stage, while the scores of men who were not remained unchanged. Furthermore – whether men undertook MI or not – change in stage of change predicted reconviction. This was a high-risk sample, making the results intriguing for at least two reasons. First, reductions in recidivism are usually achieved only with much more intensive programmes for high-risk men. Second, according to ‘traditional’ cognitive–behavioural rehabilitation theory, programmes need to target change in dynamic risk factors directly to reduce reconviction risk. That these results were obtained with men whose initial motivation was low, and in the absence of any ‘traditional’ criminogenic rehabilitation, raises questions about whether there is more than one mechanism involved in desistance.     

Consumer perspectives of New Zealand community treatment programmes for sexually abusive youth

Abstract

The aim of this process evaluation was to identify consumer perspectives of strengths and weaknesses of programme delivery at three New Zealand community treatment programmes for sexually abusive youth. Qualitative methods were employed, with data being obtained from in-depth interviews with 24 sexually abusive youth and 23 caregivers across three sites. Results indicated that clients value good pre-entry information to reduce barriers to participation; engagement in treatment is facilitated by the quality of the client–therapist relationship, family involvement, culturally appropriate communication and creative and physical activities; and post-treatment support is important. Findings highlight the importance of engaging adolescents and their families actively during the intake period, the treatment phase and post-treatment transition. They also support the use of flexible and integrated approaches to treatment that attend to the cultural context for ethnic minorities. This suggests that programmes should aim to provide wraparound services that promote engagement during the referral phase and offer transitional programmes and aftercare follow-up. Recognition should also be given to issues of cultural difference by ensuring that cultural services for ethnic minorities are integrated into all levels of programme delivery.     

Sexual offenders with learning disabilities: risk,recidivism and treatment

Abstract

While the literature on the assessment, treatment and management of non-learning disabled sexual offenders is well established, it is only in recent years that researchers and clinicians have focused on sexual offenders with learning disabilities. In contrast to mainstream sex offender treatment programmes, there are few evaluated community-based treatment programmes for sexual offenders with learning disabilities, and of the small number of published studies that describe treatment programmes, most are based on small samples and few have been validated empirically. Sexual offenders with learning disabilities differ from their non-disabled counterparts in several important ways, having implications for management and treatment. Due to methodological differences between studies, the prevalence of sexual offending by men with learning disabilities is not clear. However, in some studies, the sexual recidivism rate of offenders with learning disabilities is 6.8 times and 3.5 times that of non-disabled sexual offenders at 2- and 4-years’ follow-up, respectively. Sexual offenders with learning disabilities are also at greater risk of re-offending in a shorter time period. There remains an urgent need for further research into the assessment of risk and whether components from mainstream treatment programmes can be adapted to meet the needs of learning disabled sexual offenders. Approaches to working with sexual offenders with learning disabilities and programme development are discussed.     

Intensive psychological treatment of high-risk violent offenders: Outcomes and pre-release mechanisms

Research on correlates of intervention programmes that reduce expected reconviction rates (‘what works’ literature, Risk–Need–Responsivity model) has been highly influential in criminal justice systems throughout much of the western world. But while this psychological research has been acquiring widespread recognition, a deeper understanding of how programmes work and of mechanisms for desistance more generally, has still to develop. This research reports results of a quasi-experimental recidivism outcome study for a series of prison units that provide intensive psychological treatment to high-risk, persistently violent prisoners. Four outcomes were examined over the first 12 months following release on parole: parole violations, new convictions, new convictions for violence, and imprisonment sentences resulting from new convictions. Alongside these results, we conducted preliminary analyses of two potential pre-release mechanisms for surviving the first 12 months on parole without reconviction: lower dynamic risk for violence, and greater release readiness. We found that dynamic violence risk fully accounted for differences between treatment completers and comparison prisoners in proportions reconvicted for violence. However, in all other cases, the proposed mechanisms did not significantly explain treatment-related differences. We close by considering possible explanations for these unexpected results, and reiterating the importance to our field of more sophisticated treatment outcome research.     

Rehabilitating serious violent adult offenders: an empirical and theoretical stocktake

Extensive meta-analyses of the correctional programme evaluation literature have generated developments in the technology of programme design. However, the risk, need and responsivity principles do not constitute a rehabilitation theory and cannot answer specialist offender programme design questions. After more than a decade of involvement in programmes for seriously violent offenders, we decided to reassess the empirical evidence underpinning violence rehabilitation in adult men. We focused on both mixed and violent offender samples, reviewing the outcome data from nine evaluations of cognitive–behavioural interventions. Despite a plethora of methodological difficulties, it appears that most of the programmes had small to large effects on violent and non-violent recidivism. Little could be concluded from these evaluations about the most promising theoretical framework for future programme development. Most programmes contained only scant information on their underlying theory base. None referred to multivariate aggression or crime theories. We conclude that there is a pressing need for additional evaluative research, and theory development. To date, the case for specialist violent offending programmes has not been made.     

Outcome evaluation of a high-intensity inpatient sex offender treatment program

The treatment outcome of a high-intensity inpatient sex offender treatment program was evaluated by comparing the sexual recidivism rates of 472 treated and 282 untreated sex offenders. The program is designed for moderate- to high-risk sex offenders and follows the principles of effective correctional treatment. The current investigation is an extension of an earlier study (Nicholaichuk et al., 2000) with the addition of 176 participants, an extra 4 years follow-up, and the use of Cox regression survival analysis to control for three potentially confounding variables: age of release, sexual offending history, and length of follow-up. Treated offenders sexually recidivated significantly less than the comparison group over nearly 20 years of follow-up, even after controlling for the aforementioned variables. The substantive findings suggest that treatment adhering to the what works principles can reduce long-term sexual recidivism for a moderate- to high-risk group of sex offenders.     

Treatment programmes for adolescents who commit sexual offences: Dropout and recidivism

This paper reviews the state of research into treatment programmes for adolescent sexual offenders, focusing first on treatment dropout, then on recidivism studies. Pre-treatment variables, which may predict dropout from programmes for these adolescents, have hardly been considered, despite obvious financial and ethical implications. In relation to recidivism studies, these have been carried out quite consistently since the mid 1980s, yet, as is discussed, they still suffer from many methodological problems. The authors also note that research into treatment programmes comes almost exclusively from North America. Thus, such research needs replicating with UK samples in order to assure the applicability of any research findings to this population.     

Effectiveness of sex offender treatment for psychopathic sexual offenders

Meta-analyses have suggested that sexual offender treatment (SOT) completion is associated with lowered sexual recidivism rates for convicted sexual offenders. The paucity of properly designed studies allows for the alternative explanation of less recidivism among treated samples as reflecting that lower risk offenders disproportionately self-select into treatment. A test of the "self-selection explanation" can occur by investigating treatment effect on known high-risk offenders. Psychopathy correlates with increased sexual recidivism risk, such that an exploration of the SOT effect on psychopathic offenders could clarify the accuracy of the self-selection hypothesis. Additionally, the debated degree to which psychopaths are treatable might obtain clarification by a research review. This article examines empirical findings concerning the effectiveness of SOT for psychopathic sexual offenders. Ten studies were found to meet the minimal quality standards used, stemming from only four data sources. Shortcomings of existing research precluded clear conclusions, though trends in the data are delineated.     

An outcome evaluation of the Methodist Home for Children’s value-based therapeutic environment model

Objectives

This study presents an outcome evaluation of the Value-Based Therapeutic Environment model, a multipurpose, cognitive–behavioral treatment approach for juvenile offenders.

Methods

Using a quasi-experimental design, the impact of VBTE treatment on recidivism is assessed for 258 youths, relative to a matched subsample of 258 comparison subjects.

Results

Results indicate that VBTE treatment is an effective intervention for reducing violent recidivism but has no significant effect on property, drug, or public order offenses. Consistent with past research, offender type moderates the impact of treatment. Specifically, 72.8 % of high-risk/need youth in the comparison group had reoffended within a 16-month follow-up period, compared to only 57.5 % of high-risk/need MHC youth, yet there were no significant differences between the treatment and comparison groups among low- and medium-risk/need juveniles. Moreover, the odds of a new violent charge were 49 % lower for high-risk/need MHC youth during the 12 months following MHC-discharge. Supplementary analysis indicates that VBTE participants also showed improvements on value- and skills-based behaviors related to self-image, goal orientation, honesty, empathy, decision-making, and personal development.

Conclusions

Findings of this study suggest that the VBTE model is a promising approach for the treatment of violent behavior among high-risk youth. Implications of the findings are discussed with regard to alternative treatment approaches for juvenile offenders.

     

Measuring the real impact of accredited offending behaviour programmes

Purpose. This paper describes an integrated model for the evaluation of offending behaviour programmes in order to assess their real impact. Arguments. To date there has been an over‐reliance on reconviction data as the sole measure of treatment efficacy. Reconviction has a fundamental role to play but cannot be considered in isolation from other empirically related treatment and re‐settlement factors. A rigorous reconviction study requires an adequate comparison group but few papers describe with transparency how this has been achieved. There is also the assumption that participation in treatment renders an individual offender as treated. A treated profile is contingent upon the treatment climate, the quality of programme delivery and how the individual responds to treatment. The influence of life‐style or dynamic risk factors must also be acknowledged in terms of their effect on reconviction. Conclusions. It is recommended that researchers use an integrated approach to the evaluation of accredited offending behaviour programmes. In order to establish a broad balance of treatment outcomes, a shift away from reconviction rates is needed. This paper presents an integrated model for the evaluation of offending behaviour programmes.     

The effects of a group batterer treatment program: A randomized experiment in Brooklyn

Despite numerous evaluations of batterer treatment programs, most lack sufficient methodological rigor to yield valid answers about the programs' effectiveness. This paper presents results from an experimental evaluation in which 376 adult males convicted of domestic violence were randomly assigned to either a 40-hour batterer treatment program or 40 hours of community service that did not include any therapeutic treatment. We examined both official records and victims' reports of recidivism. Those assigned to the treatment program showed significantly lower recidivism, on the basis of all outcome measures from official records. Although victims' reports also recorded fewer failures among the batterers assigned to the treatment group, the differences in failure rates were not large enough to be statistically significant. Overall results suggest that therapeutic treatment for batterers may reduce domestic violence among convicted batterers who agree to this sentence.     

Correctional Treatment Programmes for Young Offenders in Europe: A Survey of Routine Practice

This article presents the results of an international survey of European correctional treatment programmes for young offenders. Questionnaires gathering data on programmes’ design, implementation, structure, and evaluation were collected from 112 programme administrators in 25 European Union countries. Results demonstrated that although there was a commitment to young offender rehabilitation in almost every country, programmes adopted many different approaches and were implemented with varying levels of adherence to evidence-based principles of ‘best practice.’ The majority of programmes adopted a cognitive-behavioural approach, and clinical discretion was prioritised over systematised, empirically validated assessment instruments. Most programmes were administered by centralised government agencies; however, process and outcome evaluation was rare. These findings suggest a strong need for improved systematic evaluation in most European countries.