Autism behind bars: a review of the research literature and discussion of key issues

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may experience difficulties coping at all levels of involvement in the criminal justice system. Questions remain, however, regarding the presence and type of difficulties faced by individuals with ASD in the context of incarceration within prison settings. Despite the potential impact for community safety and concerns regarding justice, these issues have received very little academic attention. The research that does exist is generally limited by poor methodology and small sample sizes. The current paper provides a brief review and discussion of the limited extant literature regarding the experiences of prisoners with ASD with the view to summarising areas of difficulties potentially faced by such individuals. It is hoped that this brief review may highlight the need for academic attention in order to inform practice and policy regarding the criminal justice response to this potentially vulnerable population.     

Marguerite Q. Warren

Abstract

Marguerite (Rita) Warren is remembered as a respected teacher, committed mentor, and good friend. She is perhaps best known, for the experimental study of the Community Treatment Project (CTP). CTP operationalized the Theory of Interpersonal Maturity (I-Level) to provide differential treatment to delinquent offenders. Rita Warren received her doctorate in clinical psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. With graduate school colleagues, she formulated the I-Level Theory. Her focus on correctional treatment began with research on Navy recruits, followed by work with the California Youth Authority, service to the NIMH's Crime and Delinquency Committee, and participation on the Task Force on Corrections for President Johnson's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice. Academe followed; for 11 years, she was a faculty member at the School of Criminal Justice at the University at Albany. This article is a biography of Rita Warren, focusing primarily upon her career and her research.     

The Re-integration Process from the Perspective of Prisoners: Opinions, Percieved Value and Participation

In this article the presence of the rehabilitation goal in the policy of the prison system in the Netherlands will be discussed first. Particular attention will be paid to the question as to why the rehabilitation goal, in spite of the doubtfull status of its impact, still plays a role in the increasing instrumentalist policy of the Dutch criminal justice system. In addition, some limitations of a one-sided 'nothing works' approach of rehabilitation will be discussed. Next, empirical research is examined for what it teaches about the functioning of correctional programmes within the prison system. Special attention will be paid to the attitudes of inmates toward rehabilitation. It will be shown that in spite of a considerable body of research on institutional adaptation, little is known about the dynamics between inmates' attitudes and personal, situational and organisational background variables. In addition, the results of a survey, conducted on the nature and sources of inmates' attitudes towards rehabilitation, will be presented. Finally, this article will offer reflections on the benefits of a process-evaluative approach of correctional interventions.     

Working with personality disordered women in secure care: the challenge of gender-based service delivery

Abstract

Working with women in secure services is an infrequent subject of research and discussion in the forensic mental health literature. There are several reasons for this, which will be considered in the introduction to this paper. However, a consequence of this situation is that there remains a lack of clarity in key areas of practice in relation to working with women in secure services, and working with women with personality disorder specifically: how women with personality disorder may present in secure services compared to men, therefore, the particular skills required of the practitioners who work with women and the main design features of the services within which they are managed. The body of this paper attempts to summarise important issues in each of these areas in order to inform future debate and developments in the field.     

Exploring the effects of work environment variables on the job satisfaction of Nigerian correctional staff

Correctional staff job satisfaction is critical for the staff’s well-being and low turnover. This study’s focus was identifying variables that predicted job satisfaction for Nigerian correctional staff and comparing the findings to past studies of US correctional staff job satisfaction. One hundred and twenty correctional staff from Nigeria were surveyed. The personal characteristics of age, gender, and tenure were not significant predictors of satisfaction in the multivariate analysis. Similar to finding for US correctional staff, job autonomy, quality of supervision, and instrumental communication all had significant positive effects on Nigerian correctional staff job satisfaction. Contrary to previous findings on US prison staff, neither job variety or role overload were significant predictors of Nigerian staff job satisfaction. Other factors may account for this discrepancy, including working conditions, the socio-economic environment and availability of job opportunities.     

Evaluation of the improving access to psychological therapies for offenders programme at HMP Lincoln: a three year prospective cohort study

The mental health needs of prisoners are significant with a high incidence of common mental health problems including anxiety and depression. Extending national initiatives such as the National Health Service Improving Access of Psychological Therapies programme to people in prison offers a valuable opportunity to address these mental health problems and improve continuity of care from prison to the community. This study adopts an observational, prospective cohort design and evaluates an IAPT for offenders service over the first three years of operation within a male Category B prison holding remand/convicted prisoners. The evaluation found large effect sizes for changes in anxiety and depression with clinical recovery being achieved in 55% of depression and 52% of anxiety cases. On average, prisoners were treated in less than five sessions employing a low-intensity cognitive-behavioural approach. The lack of established formal diagnoses and a control group limits the findings.     

Programs for Men who Perpetrate Domestic Violence: An Examination of the Issues Underlying the Effectiveness of Intervention Programs

This review paper seeks to explore some of the reasons why rehabilitation programs for male perpetrators of domestic violence appear to be less effective in reducing recidivism than programs for other offender groups. It is argued that while the model of systems response to domestic violence has predominated at the inter-agency level, further consideration might be given to way in which men’s intervention groups are both designed and delivered. It is concluded that the program logic of men’s domestic violence programs is rarely articulated leading to low levels of program integrity, and that one way to further improve program effectiveness is to incorporate some of the approaches evident in more general violence prevention programs and from what is know about good practice in general about offender rehabilitation.

Risk of harm: inmates who harm themselves while in prison psychiatric treatment

In this study, 242 randomly selected male offenders who were receiving psychiatric treatment in prison were administered psychological and neuropsychological evaluations and were followed during their treatment in a prison psychiatric hospital. Offenders who harmed themselves in treatment were compared to those who did not harm themselves. Eighteen percent of offenders harmed themselves, the severity of which required medical intervention. Young age, drug abuse, absence of Axis I mental disorder but presence of Axis II borderline personality disorder identified offenders who harmed themselves. Psychopathy checklist-revised (PCL-R) total rating > or = 30 and PCL-R Factor 2 (antisocial lifestyle) rating also identified offenders who harmed themselves. Additionally, offenders who harmed themselves also were 8.36 times more likely than their cohorts to harm treatment staff. Theoretical understanding of offenders who harm themselves, the importance of considering the environmental context in identifying risk factors for self-harm, and implications for treatment are suggested.     

Prison reentry as a rite of passage for the formerly incarcerated

American prison systems may be shifting away from warehousing towards prisoner rehabilitation. California’s corrections policy, for example, has changed dramatically in response to a variety of pressures budgetary, operational and judicial. What might such changes mean for prisoner rehabilitation and the chances of formerly incarcerated persons leading meaningful, contributing lives? This is an exploratory essay on the possibility of a formerly incarcerated person finding himself through prison work. My primary concern is with understanding and utilizing current shifts in correctional philosophies and practices to create healing alternatives and a more inclusive justice, one with room for my own healing. I pursue this inquiry through the use of an autoethnographic approach to legal storytelling.     

The impact of bullying and coping strategies on the psychological distress of young offenders

Abstract

This study investigated the involvement in bullying, the psychological distress, and the coping strategies of 99 males in an English young offenders institution. The Direct and Indirect Prisoner Behaviour Checklist (DIPC; Ireland, 1998 Ireland, J. L. 1998. Direct and Indirect Prisoner Behaviour Checklist (DIPC), Lancashire, , UK: University of Central Lancashire.  [Google Scholar]), the 21-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995 Lovibond, P. F. and Lovibond, S. H. 1995. The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with the Beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research Therapy, 33: 335–343. [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and the 48-item Coping Styles Questionnaire (CSQ; Roger et al., 1993 Roger, D., Jarvis, G. and Najarian, B. 1993. Detachment and coping: The construction and validation of a new scale for measuring coping strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 15: 619–626. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) were administered. Over 60% of prisoners were involved in bullying (as a victim or bully), as indicated by responses on the DIPC. Emotional and avoidance coping were significantly related to psychological distress. Bully/victims were significantly more depressed than prisoners not involved in bullying, and being a bully/victim was a significant predictor of higher stress scores. Significant correlations were observed between all psychological distress measures and the number of bullying behaviours experienced by prisoners. These findings are discussed in relation to their implications for prisoner care and avenues for future research are proposed.     

Perceived workplace adversity and correctional officer psychological well-being: an international examination of the impact of officer response styles

Correctional officers work in a highly challenging environment and are at a heightened risk of a range of negative stress-related health conditions. This study examines how correctional officer responses to adversity moderate the association between perceived workplace adversity and psychological well-being. The aim was to assess the degree that perceived workplace adversity predicts correctional officer psychological well-being and the subsequent impact on negative organizational outcomes such as absenteeism, presenteeism and job dissatisfaction. Hundred and seventy four officers completed an online questionnaire including measures of perceived workplace adversity, officer responses, psychological well-being and organizational impact. Structural Equation Modelling revealed that a heightened perception of workplace adversity predicted lower psychological well-being and in turn increased negative organizational impacts. Analyses indicated that using an interpersonal/solution focused response style moderated the relationship between perceived workplace adversity and psychological well-being, reducing its negative impact on well-being and in turn the frequency of negative organizational impacts. These findings offer insight into how officers’ perceptions of their working environment and how they respond to workplace adversity influence their psychological well-being and the organizations that employ them.     

Hope in the treatment of sexual offenders: the potential application of hope theory

Abstract

The present paper attempts to demonstrate how hope theory is conceptually consistent with current positive approaches to sexual offender treatment. Hope theory and its components of goals, pathways thinking, and agentic thinking is reviewed as defined by Snyder and his colleagues. A theoretical relationship exists between the role of hope and many aspects of sexual offending and treatment. Developmental course, attachment style, and the formation and maintenance of coping styles are reviewed as they relate to hope and sexual offending. A framework by which to apply hope theory to pre-treatment, treatment, and more specifically, self-management or relapse prevention for sexual offenders is proposed. Emphasis is placed on the use of techniques that target hope components, particularly in pre-treatment programs.     

Judges as therapists and therapists as judges: the collision of judicial and therapeutic roles in drug treatment courts

This paper explores the implications of the expansion of judicial and therapeutic roles in a drug treatment court (DTC) in Canada. Issues that are raised are: how the courtroom is framed as a therapeutic space where public appearances by participants are part of the therapeutic process; how judges have taken on therapeutic practices, effectively compromising their traditional role as neutral arbiter; how certain women resisted therapeutic interventions by judges and felt they received harsher punishments than men; and how treatment counselors in DTCs are given powers of enforcement over their clients. The collision of judicial and therapeutic roles in the DTC results in negative consequences for individuals in the specialized courts. Specifically, DTC participants are expected to engage in a therapeutic relationship with their treatment counselors and the court; however, their right to confidentiality is withheld, and their treatment counselors act as agents for the court.     

What has worked and what has not with Minnesota sex offenders: a review of the evidence

Abstract

Since the early 1990s, many states in the USA have attempted to control sexual offending and, more narrowly, sexual recidivism by implementing longer prison sentences for sex crimes, sex offender registration and notification, residency restrictions, involuntary civil commitment and lifetime probation and parole. The early 1990s also marked the beginning of a decline in official rates of sexual offending, including sexual recidivism. This study reviews recent research conducted on Minnesota sex offenders in an effort to identify which policies, programmes and practices might have contributed to the drop in sexual recidivism rates that have been observed over the last few decades. By assessing what has, and has not, worked with Minnesota sex offenders, this study discusses how lessons learned from the Minnesota experience may apply to broader efforts within the USA and abroad to control sexual offending.     

Fetal protection and potential liability: judicial application of the Pregnancy Discrimination Act and the disparate impact theory

"Fetal vulnerability programs," which are employer attempts to protect employees' unborn fetuses from harm caused by the mothers' exposure to hazardous material in the workplace, have been challenged as a form of employment discrimination. This Note analyzes the recent judicial application of the Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA) and the disparate impact theory to fetal vulnerability cases. The Note also examines the business necessity defense's accommodation of legitimate employer interests. The Note concludes that a more potent business necessity defense, a stricter standard for evaluating alternative protective measures, and a judicial interpretation of the PDA which is more consistent with congressional intent are necessary for fair and reasonable resolution of these cases.     

Perceptions of older adult jurors: the influence of aging stereotypes and jury laws

ABSTRACT

The present study examined younger (18–30 years, N?=?100) and older adults’ (66–89 years, N?=?100) responses to a jury duty questionnaire assessing perceptions of jury duty, their capability to serve, and the capability of older adults to serve. We also explored perceptions of the senior jury opt-out law (a law that allows those over a certain age (e.g. 65 years) to opt-out of jury duty). We assessed why participants believe this law is in place and experimentally examined if informing older adults about this law impacted their jury questionnaire responses. Results demonstrated that older adults were significantly more likely to want to serve compared to younger adults; however, younger adults provided lower capability ratings of older adult jurors compared to older adults. Younger adults’ open-ended explanations for these ratings indicated negative aging stereotypes (i.e. in part, believing that older adult jurors are less capable because of declining health and biased beliefs). Older adults also had a significantly lower rate of agreement with the senior jury opt-out law. Although informing older adults about this law did not impact their perceptions of themselves as potential jurors, it did enforce more negative attitudes towards older adult jurors as a whole.     

How to train your dragon: an introduction to the special issue on treatment programmes for high-risk offenders

The plot of the popular movie How to Train Your Dragon includes several features that are paralleled in the efforts of programme designers and treatment providers who work with the highest risk offenders in criminal justice systems. This introduction to the special feature on programmes for high-risk offenders notes that there are important differences in how treatments are provided for offenders with varying levels of risk, need, and responsivity. It asks if what is known about effective offender intervention – much of it derived from moderately risky offenders – applies to those who are thought to be at high risk of new criminal activity. It observes that the relative lack of intervention theory for these offenders provides an important justification for a feature that focuses primarily on describing a range of these interventions and their theoretical underpinnings. The papers that follow are then introduced.     

Considering the Effectiveness of Drug Treatment behind Bars: Findings from the South Carolina RSAT Evaluation

Through funding from the national Residential Substance Abuse Treatment Program, the South Carolina Department of Corrections implemented the Correctional Recovery Academy in the Turbeville Medium Security Institution to treat drug‐dependent offenders. The program features a cognitive–behavioral change modality delivered in a modified therapeutic community to first time, non‐violent, drug‐dependent, youthful male offenders. A quasi‐experimental design was employed to specify impact as indicated by recidivism, relapse, and parole revocation. While analyses revealed no statistically significant difference between treatment and control group participants on these outcome measures, implications regarding the efficacy of the treatment modality are ambiguous as implementation failure masked determination of program effects. Drug testing frequency after release, however, was found to be a significant factor precluding failure, contrary to the conventional view that increased testing identifies greater use.     

Improving impact evaluations through randomised experiments: The challenge of the National Research Council report for European criminology

The National Research Council (NRC) report on Improving Evaluation of Anticrime Programs presents and discusses a wide array of techniques of evaluation. Although recognising the very high internal validity of randomised experiments, it considers, under certain conditions, quasi-experiments and observational studies as equally valid approaches. This conclusion is critically reviewed from a European perspective, where only a few randomised trials have been realised so far. It is argued that many critiques routinely addressed to randomised experiments, such as ethical concerns or low acceptance among practitioners, are either unfounded or can be adequately dealt with through imaginative adjustments. On the other hand, randomised controlled trials need to take the challenge of broadening the perspective, especially by looking at long-term effects that no other method can consider with comparable internal validity. Other recommendations include using innovative measures of re-offending, considering dynamic rather than static criteria of re-offending, and looking, beyond re-offending, at rehabilitation in other areas of life. Particular challenges are the possible placebo effects that evaluators in criminal justice have not yet found appropriate ways to deal with.