‘Stalking’ – Seeking the victim's perspective

Abstract

The law has experienced great difficulty in defining ‘stalking’ and framing legislation to deal with the problem. There has been little research as to how the public in general and potential victims in particular view this phenomenon. In an effort to explore this issue, 80 women aged 18 to 55 years were invited to classify which of a range of intrusive behaviours were exemplars of stalking. A cluster analysis of the classification data showed a clear distinction between those which participants felt to be stalking and non-stalking related acts. Further, a number of distinct sub-categories of perceived stalking behaviours were suggested by the analysis. Participants were also asked to indicate whether they had first hood experience of any of these behaviours and to describe their worst personal experience of ‘stalking’. Analysis of this data suggested that instances of what our respondents perceived as ‘stalking’ was widespread in the sample and that some of its more serious manifestations would, if reported, have led to criminal charges. The difficulties of framing legislation, however, to define all the acts which our respondents saw as ‘stalking’ remain.     

Stalking,harassment and aggressive/intrusive behaviours towards general practitioners: (2) associated factors,motivation, mental illness and effects on GPs

Seventy per cent of general practitioners (GPs) were found in an earlier study to have been subject to aggressive/intrusive behaviours by patients, with nearly 20% stalked and 20% harassed. Using the same sample, an exploration was undertaken of patterns of behaviour, patient characteristics, including mental illness and motivation, GP characteristics, and effects upon them of aggression/intrusion. There were significant differences in patterns of behaviour between stalking and harassment. Nearly half the patients involved were suspected to be mentally ill, including 54.5% of stalking cases. Stalking was significantly associated with intimacy-seeking motivation, and harassment with resentful motivation. No significant associations emerged between sex of patients or GPs and aggressive/intrusive behaviours. Measures of GP time-at-risk were associated with higher prevalence of individual behaviours. GPs’ responses to aggressive/intrusive behaviours included increasing security and changing routines, with small minorities afraid to go out or be at home alone, and a proportion experiencing adverse effects on personal relationships.     

Perceptions and personal experiences of unwanted attention among Portuguese male students

The present study investigated male perceptions and personal experiences of ‘unwanted attention’ (UA), as well as possible associations between perceptions and personal experiences of UA. Ninety-one male college students, from five Portuguese universities, were asked to indicate which of a continuum of 47 behaviours represented UA. Although UA, stalking and harassment are rarely addressed in Portugal, male college students shared a clear understanding of what behaviours constituted UA, with the identification of four main categories of UA behaviours: ‘aggressive’, ‘threatening’, ‘classic’ and ‘dysfunctional attachment’. Almost all participants (96%) reported personal experiences of at least one UA behaviour. There was a minimal relationship between perceptions and personal experiences of the individual behaviours. The findings highlight the widespread risk of male victimisation and the need to legitimise male complaints.     

Perceptions and experiences of intrusive behavior and stalking within a culture

ABSTRACT

Previous studies have compared perceptions and experiences of intrusive activity and stalking between countries and the present work compares subcultures within a single country. Singaporean women (89 Chinese, 69 Indian and 68 Malay) with similar age profiles completed a modified version of the ‘Stalking: International perceptions and prevalence’ questionnaire (SIPPQ). This contained measures of individual perceptions and experiences of a range of 47 intrusive behaviors, and a measure of stalking. Between the three ethnic groups, few differences were found in terms of how unacceptable the 47 intrusive acts were judged to be. The small number of differences identified related to courtship behaviors. Women across ethnicities reported largely the same experiences of intrusive behaviors, differing on just two of the 47 behaviors. This suggests that overarching national attitudes towards women are better determinants of the types of intrusive behaviors they are likely to experience, as opposed to their subculture. Finally, no differences were found in stalking rates between the three ethnic groups, but the overall stalking rate within the sample was high at 54.9%. This finding may provide impetus to increase awareness of stalking in Singapore, given that it was only recently criminalized in the sovereign city–state.     

Aggressive/intrusive behaviours,harassment and stalking of members of the United Kingdom parliament: a prevalence study and cross-national comparison

Politicians suffer intrusive and aggressive behaviours from members of the public, often lone actors fixated on personal grievances. Few explorations of intrusive behaviours towards politicians have been published; their results are not directly comparable. We surveyed intrusive/aggressive behaviours towards UK members of parliament (MPs); our survey instrument was then administered to MPs at three other parliaments (Queensland, New Zealand, and Norway), providing a cross-national, four-site comparison. 239 MPs completed the UK survey. This 38% response rate produced prevalence rates remarkably similar to the other sites, New Zealand having an 84% response rate. 81% of UK MPs had experienced one or more of the 12 behaviours specified, the mean being five. 18% had been subject to attack/attempted attack, 42% to threats to harm and 22% to property damage. In 53% of respondents, experiences met definitions of stalking or harassment. This has implications for the provision of risk assessment and management.     

Stalking in the Context of Domestic Violence

Abstract

This article examines the effect of criminal justice intervention in domestic violence on stalking in that relationship. Almost two hundred female victims of misdemeanor domestic violence in three jurisdictions were interviewed three times after their cases had closed. Qualitative interviews were conducted with a subsample of 21 victims who had experience with stalking. Specific court outcomes in domestic violence cases and whether or not the victim cooperated with the prosecution do not impact whether or not a domestic violence victim experiences subsequent stalking. Women who experienced stalking in addition to domestic violence were more likely to use the system in the future than women who just experienced domestic violence. The qualitative interviews revealed additional findings regarding victims' opinions of the criminal justice response to stalking in the context of domestic violence.     

Participant gender,stalking myth acceptance,and gender role stereotyping in perceptions of intimate partner stalking: a structural equation modeling approach

The present research used a mock juror experiment (N = 360) to assess two primary goals: (1) to examine the direct and indirect effects of participant gender, stalking myth acceptance, and gender role stereotyping on guilt ratings in a stalking trial; and (2) to examine the role of perceived victim fear and distress, and defendant intended danger on perceptions of a stalking trial. Using structural equation modeling, we found an indirect effect of participant gender, and both direct and indirect effects of stalking myth acceptance and gender role stereotyping on guilt ratings. Men and participants who endorsed more traditional gender role stereotypes were associated with adherence to stalking myth acceptance beliefs. Endorsement of particular stalking myth acceptance beliefs offers a partial explanation for why women and men differed on perceptions of the defendant's intent to cause danger and the victim's perceived fear and distress. Results provide insight into the efficacy of current anti-stalking legislation that relies on a juror's capacity to evaluate an ‘objective’ interpretation (i.e., ‘reasonable person’) standard of fear for intimate partner stalking.     

Identifying Stalking: The Relevance of Intent in Commonsense Reasoning

One method of distinguishing stalking from law-abiding behavior is to determine whether the accused intended to cause fear or harm to the target. However, this distinction may not capture community concerns regarding intrusive or harassing behavior. The present research examines the effect of intent, persistence, relationship, and consequences on community perceptions of stalking. Responses of 1,080 members of the community to a series of scenarios indicated that the presence of explicit evidence of intent was not the only way stalking behavior was identified. Behavior was also identified as stalking as a greater degree of persistence was depicted. Females more often than males perceived the behavior as stalking and inferred intent to cause fear or harm. Most participants who identified the behavior as stalking also indicated that it should be illegal. These results may assist in guiding ongoing debates over appropriate stalking legislation and strategies to reduce the incidence of stalking, as well as indicating whether education regarding stalking laws is required.     

Risk factors for stalking violence,persistence, and recurrence

This study used a retrospective design to investigate risk factors associated with violence during a stalking episode, persistence (increased duration of stalking) and recurrence (multiple subsequent separate stalking episodes) in 157 people (91% male, mean age 35 years) with an established history of stalking behaviour. Results showed that diverse risk factors are associated with different types of stalking outcomes. Consistent with previous research, stalking violence was more likely to occur when the victim was an ex-intimate, when explicit threats had been made and where there had been previous property damage (AUC = .74). Personality disorder, older age, criminal versatility, a prior acquaintanceship and erotomanic delusions (AUC = .75) predicted stalking recurrence. Finally, previous acquaintanceship, the presence of delusional beliefs and the absence of a history of physical or sexual violence were associated with stalking persistence. These results clearly show that effective assessment and management of stalking requires consideration of different stalking outcomes and the diversity of associated risk factors.     

Framing and perceptions of stalking: the influence of conduct severity and the perpetrator–target relationship

Research has demonstrated that the way in which questions are presented (i.e. framed) has the capacity to influence responses to subsequent questions. In the context of stalking, perception research has often been framed in terms of whether or not particular behaviours constitute stalking. The current research investigates whether the framing of the opening question (question frame), conduct severity and the perpetrator–target relationship influence perceptions of stalking. Two studies employed experimental 3×3 independent factorial designs: one to examine question frame and conduct severity, the other to examine question frame and the perpetrator–target relationship. Participants in both studies (total N=449) were presented with vignettes and asked to answer six questions relating to the behaviour described. Question frame was found to impact on the classification of behaviour, with a greater proportion of participants indicating that the behaviour represented harassment or stalking rather than an illegal act. Consistent with previous research, conduct severity and the perpetrator–target relationship influenced perceptions of stalking. However, there was no evidence to suggest that the framing of the opening question influenced these perceptions. The implications of these findings for previous perception research are discussed.     

Complaints of group-stalking (‘gang-stalking’): an exploratory study of their nature and impact on complainants

Stalking primarily concerns the actions of individuals. However, some victims report stalking by organised groups, this being known as ‘group-’ or ‘gang-stalking’. This phenomenon has not been subject to systematic study. An anonymous questionnaire was completed online by self-defined victims of stalking. One thousand and forty respondents met research definitions for stalking, of which 128 (12.3%) reported group-stalking. One hundred and twenty-eight individually stalked cases were randomly selected as a comparison group. All cases of reported group-stalking were found likely to be delusional, compared with 3.9% of individually stalked cases. There were highly significant differences between the two groups on most parameters examined. The group-stalked scored more highly on depressive symptoms, post-traumatic symptomatology and adverse impact on social and occupational functioning. Group-stalking appears to be delusional in basis, but complainants suffer marked psychological and practical sequelae. This is important in assessment of risk in stalking cases, early referral to psychiatric services and allocation of police resources.     

The influence of contextual information regarding the breakdown of relationships and perpetrator-target sex composition on perceptions of relational stalking

ABSTRACT

The present study examines the influence of prior relationship (with contextual information regarding the breakdown of the relationship) and perpetrator-target sex composition on perceptions of relational stalking. The study employed an experimental 7?×?2 independent measures design, and the sample comprised 1,260 members of the community residing in Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States. Participants received one of 14 versions of a hypothetical scenario and responded to scale items concerning the situation described. The situation was perceived to be most serious when the perpetrator was a stranger or a physically violent ex-partner and least serious when the perpetrator was an ex-partner of an unfaithful target. Scenarios involving a male perpetrator and a female victim were also perceived to be more serious than scenarios involving a female perpetrator and a male target. It is apparent therefore that the context of the relationship breakdown and the sex of the perpetrator and target significantly influence perceptions of relational stalking.     

Latent Profile Approach to Duration of Stalking

Abstract: Stalking behavior and victim–stalker relationship are often the principal known factors in a stalking case. Thus, they are of great importance when trying to identify factors contributing to stalking duration. The present study aims to identify distinct subgroups of stalking victims based on measures of behavioral stalking dimensions. These victim subgroups, stalking dimensions, and victim–stalker relationship are examined in relation to stalking duration. Using a sample of 137 university students, latent profile analysis (LPA) revealed five distinct victim subgroups based on stalker behavior dimensions: surveillance, low‐profile, social lurker, wide scope, and baseline stalkers. The subgroups were significantly related to stalking duration and explained a considerable amount of the variance along with the stalking dimensions and victim–stalker relationship. Connections to stalking literature and utility of person‐orientated methods in stalking research are discussed.     

Psychopathy in a mixed gender sample of adult stalkers

The authors present data on a mixed gender sample of 78 adult stalking perpetrators, each of whom was assessed with the Psychopathy Checklist:Screening Version (PCL:SV). Results indicate a generally low frequency of psychopathy in this group, although 15% of the sample was composed of psychopaths. Comparisons between this sample and other forensic samples indicate that both the frequency and degree of psychopathy were lower in the stalking group. The findings support previous theory and empirical findings, including the concept that underlying attachment pathology among stalkers and psychopaths is quite different, and psychopathy--in contrast to other areas of violence risk assessment--is usually not relevant when evaluating dangerousness among stalkers.     

A Multi-Theoretical Framework to Assess Gendered Stalking Victimization: The Utility of Self-Control,Social Learning,and Control Balance Theories

Despite recent advancements in the criminological study of stalking, few theoretical tests have been conducted to date to explain stalking victimization among men and women separately. The current study individually and simultaneously extends three criminological theories to the study of stalking victimization: self-control, social learning, and control balance theories. Among a sample of 2,766 university students, a series of models were estimated for men and women separately to assess each set of theoretical variables net of control variables. Results reveal consistent significant positive relationships between stalking victimization and low self-control for men; differential peer association (e.g. friends are stalking victims) for men and women; and several social learning variables for only women. However, the control imbalance variables do not explain stalking victimization among men or women, net of other theoretical and control variables. The utility of a multi-theoretical approach to future stalking victimization research is discussed.     

Cyberstalking versus off-line stalking in a forensic sample

There is relatively little empirical research into cyberstalking and most published research reports data from samples of cyberstalking victims. The current study aimed to fill a gap in the literature by comparing 36 cyberstalking offenders with an age and gender matched sample of 36 off-line stalkers (average age 37 years, 94% male) to investigate differences in demographic, clinical and behavioural characteristics. Non-parametric analyses showed few between-group differences, although cyberstalkers were more likely to be ex-intimate partners (75% vs. 47%, χ² = 5.84, p = .02, φ = .28) and less likely to approach their victims (56% vs. 78%, χ² = 4.00, p = .05, φ = ?.24). The majority of cyberstalkers also used off-line stalking tactics. Examination of specific cyberstalking behaviours suggested that cyberstalkers with different motivations used the Internet in distinct ways. These results support broad conclusions from previous research indicating that there are relatively few differences between cyberstalkers and off-line stalkers. Once the motivation of the stalker is considered, treatment and management strategies for cyberstalking and off-line stalking are likely to be similar.     

Career Dimensions of Stalking Victimization and Perpetration

Prior literature concerning stalking, particularly in the field of criminology, finds wide variation in fundamental trends regarding stalking victimization and perpetration. There seems to be little consensus regarding when and how stalking is manifested. Furthermore, prior research to date has not addressed the etiology of stalking‐related behaviors by applying principles from criminal career research, including participation, frequency, onset, and duration. The present study builds upon prior research by addressing trends in age of onset for stalking victimization and perpetration, the duration of stalking‐related behaviors, and the relationship between those behaviors and other types of crime over the life course using primary data from a sample of young adults. Findings indicate that stalking victimization and perpetration share important career attribute similarities, and that self‐reported history of intimate partner violence and sexual assault are strongly associated with stalking outcomes.     

Stalking experiences reported by Norwegian members of Parliament compared to a population sample

Background: This study investigates experiences of stalking among members of the Norwegian Parliament and compared them to findings of a Norwegian population sample. Material and methods: In autumn 2012, all 169 members of Parliament (MPs) got a questionnaire with a general section ending with screening for stalking experiences. In case of positive screening, the MPs should give more details on their experiences. The population sample responded to a more extensive version of the same questionnaire. Results: The response rate was 59%, but only 95 MPs delivered valid questionnaires. The MPs reported higher prevalence rates of current stalking than the population sample. Previous stalking rates were higher among population. The MPs had less direct contact with stalkers and used more non-contact coping styles compared to the population. Conclusion: MPs experienced more current stalking than the population sample; otherwise, the picture of stalking of MPs was more nuanced than previously reported.     

The Stalking of Lawyers: A Survey Amongst Professionals in Milan

This is the first study focused on the stalking of lawyers. The authors hypothesized that these professionals are at risk of being stalked by their clients and that this stalking is ascribable to RECON type I.B. A random sample of lawyers was survived. 37.3% of 166 respondents revealed to have been stalked: not only by clients, but also by adversaries and colleagues. Data seem to confirm that the stalking of lawyers mainly belongs to RECON type I.B. Female lawyers were at greater risk than male lawyers. In family law cases, the professionals tended to be stalked by the former husbands of the lawyers' clients (p < 0.01). Several female lawyers—but no male lawyers—were threatened with harm to their family members (p < 0.05). Most of the stalking victims described psychological effects of being stalked. Who suffered physical aggression or repercussions on work was more likely to lodge a complaint (p < 0.01).     

The Effects of Low Self-Control and Childhood Maltreatment on Stalking Victimization among Men and Women

This study examines sex differences among stalking victimization using two theoretical perspectives: self-control and the intergenerational transmission of violence. A sample of 1,490 undergraduate students at a large southeastern university were surveyed and asked to report their experiences with stalking, childhood maltreatment, and self-control. Given that men and women may experience stalking, self-control, and child maltreatment differently, logistic regression models were estimated separately to disentangle sex differences. Findings indicate that women are more likely than men to be victims of stalking. Childhood maltreatment was significantly related to stalking victimization for both men and women whereas low self-control was significantly related to stalking victimization for women only. Implications for policy and directions for future research are discussed.