In vivo facial tissue depth study of Chinese-American adults in New York City

This study examines facial tissue depth in adult Chinese-Americans. Using ultrasound, measurements were taken at 19 landmarks across the faces of 101 individuals aged from 18 to 87 years. Summary statistics are reported for a sample of 67 individuals of normal weight (as determined by a body mass index [BMI] of 19-25). Statistical analyses were used to assess relationships between tissue thickness, age, and BMI. Results indicate that no significant relationship exists between tissue thickness and age for males, and for only 3/19 points in females. Also, only four points showed significant relationships between tissue thickness and sex. However, significant relationships exist between BMI and tissue thickness at multiple points for both males and females. Compared to other American and Asian populations in the literature, Chinese-Americans generally had thinner facial tissue; though, this difference was not assessed statistically. Finally, data generated in this study will add to the body of knowledge concerning facial tissue depth variation in modern humans.     

Ultrasonic assessment of facial soft tissue thicknesses in adult Egyptians

The production of a three-dimensional plastic face on an unknown human skull has been practiced sporadically since the latter part of the last century. In recent years, the technique has been revived and applied to forensic science cases. The morphometric method of forensic facial reconstruction rests heavily on the use of facial soft tissue depth measurements. Moreover, it has been established that measurements made on the living are of more value than those made on the dead. In view of the well-known genetic complexities of the Egyptians, and the lack of knowledge of average facial soft tissue depths of the Egyptians that makes facial reconstruction questionable, it was decided to set up a table of norms for facial tissue thicknesses in 204 adult Egyptians aged 20-35 years. Tissue depths at 17 established landmarks (according to Aulsebrook et al. [Forensic Sci. Int. 79 (1996) 83]) were obtained using ultrasonic probing. The study revealed a unique spectrum of measurements for the Egyptians that might be useful for facial reconstruction purposes with obvious sexual dimorphism in facial soft tissue thickness. Additionally, the study provided evidence for the presence of interpopulation differences in average facial soft tissue thicknesses as evidenced from the comparison of the present data of Egyptians with those previously reported for some other populations.     

四川汉族青少年面部中线软组织厚度的数字X线测量

目的测量四川汉族青少年(8～20岁)人群面部中线软组织厚度,探讨其生长发育变化规律,为法医人类学的面部重建提供的基础数据。方法选取974例(男496,女478)头颅侧位数字X线片,分13个年龄段(8～20岁),选择面部10个标志点的软组织厚度测量,并进行描述性统计学分析。结果四川汉族青少年人群面部10个标志点的中线软组织平均厚度,在青少年阶段大多数测量标志点随年龄增长而增厚;男女性面部中线软组织厚度统计学分析存在性别差异(P<0.05),在15岁之后差异增大,且LLI点显著差异性在9～20岁之间均存在(P<0.01)。结论四川汉族青少年面部中线软组织厚度有随年龄增长而增厚的趋势,男女面部软组织厚度存在性别差异。     

国人头面部软组织厚度的MRI测量

用磁共振成像（MRI）方法对498例（男274，女224）中国汉族人头面部31个标志点（正中线16，侧面15）的软组织厚度分7个年龄组进行了测量。结果表明，国人（汉族）头面部软组织厚度一般随年龄增长而增厚，大约在45～59岁最厚，60岁以后又开始变薄；男女性头面部软组织厚度有性别差异，在大多数测量点男厚于女，在19个测量点中有显著性差异（0．01＜P＜0．05）。个体因素对颜面上下部软组织厚度有不同影响，下面部软组织厚度受个体因素影响较上面部大。     

Ancestry and BMI Influences on Facial Soft Tissue Depths for A Cohort of Chinese and Caucasoid Women in Dunedin,New Zealand

This study measured and assessed facial soft tissue depths (FSTDs) in adult female Chinese and New Zealand (NZ) Europeans (Caucasoids). Ultrasound was used to obtain depths at nine landmarks on 108 healthy subjects (51 Chinese, 57 NZ European), erect positioned, of same age group (18–29 years). Height and weight were also recorded. Statistical analysis focused on comparison of tissue depth between the two ancestry groups and the influence of Body Mass Index (BMI) (kg/m²). Results showed mean depth differences at Supra M2 and Infra M2 landmarks significantly greater for Chinese than Caucasoid women for all three BMI Classes (BMI <20, 20 ≤ BMI < 25, 25 ≤ BMI < 30), even BMI <20. For both groups BMI positively correlated with FSTD values at all landmarks except Labrale superius. This study enabled ancestry and BMI influence on FSTDs to be observed and compared for two distinct groups. Results add to knowledge about facial tissue depth variation.     

Facial soft tissue thickness in northwest Indian adults

In order to reconstruct the face from a bare skull, the facial soft tissue thickness (FSTT) was determined at 29 standard anthropological landmarks by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 173 male and 127 female adult subjects of northwest Indian origin. Repeatability and accuracy of the measurements was assessed by paired t-test and 95% confidence intervals. A stepwise discriminant function analysis selected nine landmarks for better sex classification in FSTT measurements. The thickness of soft tissue was different from that described in the literature and reported for samples from other countries. A correlation between skinfold thickness and body mass index (BMI) with that of FSTT was observed. The data of facial soft tissue thickness will help forensic experts in reconstructing the face from a skull for identification purposes.     

Midline facial soft tissue thickness database of Turkish population: MRI study

Facial reconstruction is the approximation of an antemortem face from human skeletal remains. Since the nineteenth century, several methods have been developed for reconstruction of the face; all of them require the measurement of average tissue thicknesses at various points on the face. To our knowledge, there are no publications on soft tissue thickness in the Turkish population. In addition, there are few publications on the value of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in measuring soft tissue thickness for forensic sciences. The aim of this study was to create a reference database of facial tissue thickness in the Turkish population, and to present data illustrating the successful use of MRI for this purpose. The study included 161 patients (79 males and 82 females) between the ages of 18 and 78 who had undergone brain MRI in our radiology clinic, and showed no sign of maxillofacial pathology. Measurements were taken at 9 points at the midline; glabella, nasion, end of nasals, mid-philtrum, upper lip margin, lower lip margin, chin-lip fold, mental eminence, and beneath chin points. The mean values for these points in the patient sample population were determined, and differences related to age, sex, and body mass index (BMI) were calculated. The values were then compared to the findings of the Manhein study.     

Application of Enhanced Point Estimators to a Sample of In Vivo CT‐derived Facial Soft Tissue Thicknesses

Facial approximations based on facial soft tissue depth measurement tables often utilize the arithmetic mean as a central tendency estimator. Stephan et al. (J Forensic Sci 2013;58:1439) suggest that the shorth and 75‐shormax statistics are better suited to describe the central tendency of non‐normal soft tissue depth data, while also accommodating normal distributions. The shorth, 75‐shormax, arithmetic mean, and other central tendency estimators were evaluated using a CT ‐derived facial soft tissue depth dataset. Differences between arithmetic mean and shorth mean for the tissue depths examined ranged from 0 mm to +2.3 mm (average 0.6 mm). Differences between the arithmetic mean plus one standard deviation (to approximate the same data points covered by the 75‐shormax) and 75‐shormax values ranged from ?0.8 mm to +0.7 mm (average 0.2 mm). The results of this research suggest that few practical differences exist across the central tendency point estimators for the evaluated soft tissue depth dataset.     

Facial Soft Tissue Thickness Database for Craniofacial Reconstruction in Korean Adults

Abstract: One hundred Korean adults (50 men, 50 women) were scanned in the upright position using a cone‐beam CT (CBCT) scanner. The soft tissue (ST) thicknesses were measured at 31 landmarks, 10 midline and 21 bilateral landmark sites, and the means and standard deviations were obtained for male and female subjects. While 18 of 31 landmarks showed sex differences, the majority showed higher values for male subjects with the exception of a few landmark sites corresponding to the zygoma area, which showed smaller values in men than in women. The mandibular area showed greater differences between the right and left sides. Overall, the ST thickness measurements obtained in this study can be used as a database for the forensic craniofacial reconstruction of Korean adult faces.     

Facial soft-tissue thicknesses in the adult male Zulu

The morphometric method of forensic facial reconstruction rests heavily on the use of facial soft tissue depth measurements. In reconstructing the Negroid face, much use has been made of the tables of soft tissue thicknesses of American Negroid cadavers. However, the genetic complexities of American blacks are well known. In addition it is felt that measurements made on the living are of more value than those made on the dead. In view of this it was decided to set up a table of norms for facial soft tissue depths of the living Zulu, an African Negroid who has remained relatively free from genetic admixture with other populations. The tightly controlled sample consisted of 55 healthy male Zulus, aged 20 to 35. Tissue depths at established landmarks were measured from lateral and oblique cephalometric radiographs. These were then combined with ultrasonic readings at other landmarks on the subject's face to yield a comprehensive set of tissue depth data. This paper presents a set of average facial soft tissue depth measurements from the Zulu face that results in the development of a new profile. It also provides a method for linking two systems of measurement.     

In vivo facial tissue depth measurements for children and adults

This study reports results of a facial tissue depth measurements project conducted over a two-year period on a modern sample of children and adults of both sexes and varying ages and races. The purpose of this research was to increase available tissue depth data for children and update facial tissue depth measurements for American adults. Most volunteers for this project were patients or visitors to the pediatric clinic at the Louisiana State University Medical Center, School of Dentistry, in New Orleans. Using state of-the-art ultrasound technology, we scanned 551 children and 256 adults at 19 points across the face. Thirteen of the scanned points were traditional landmarks while six others were areas not measured by previous researchers or were points for which very little data exist for both children and adults. For this presentation, we analyzed data for 515 children and 197 adults. Results of Pearson's correlations, analysis of variance, and paired t-tests indicate that age, sex, and race are significant factors when considering tissue depth means for different measurement locations across the human face. These new standards are compared to the work of other researchers. Our results provide valuable assistance in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional facial reproductions and superimpositions.     

Reproducibility of facial soft tissue thicknesses for craniofacial reconstruction using cone-beam CT images

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the reproducibility of the soft tissue (ST) thicknesses at 31 landmarks using the cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) images obtained from 20 adult subjects. Four observers carried out ST thickness measurements using Skull Measure software, and the inter- and intra-observer error rates were evaluated. Only five of 31 landmarks showed significant differences in recorded ST thickness between the observers. When excluding inexperienced observers, only one landmark showed a significant difference between the observers. Regarding the intra-observer reproducibility, the ST thickness measurements at three landmarks showed low correlation coefficients. The results of this study indicate that CBCT images can be used to measure ST thickness with high reproducibility. However, some landmarks need to be redefined to reliably measure ST thickness on CBCT images.     

Semi-automated ultrasound facial soft tissue depth registration: method and validation

A mobile and fast, semi-automatic ultrasound (US) system was developed for facial soft tissue depth registration. The system consists of an A-Scan ultrasound device connected to a portable PC with interfacing and controlling software. For 52 cephalometric landmarks, the system was tested for repeatability and accuracy by evaluating intra-observer agreement and comparing ultrasound and CT-scan results on 12 subjects planned for craniofacial surgery, respectively. A paired t-test evaluating repeatability of the ultrasound measurements showed 5.7% (n = 3) of the landmarks being significantly different (p < 0.01). US and CT-scan results showed significant differences (p < 0.01) using a Wilcoxon signed rank test analysis for 11.5% (n = 6) of the landmarks. This is attributed to a difference in the volunteer's head position between lying (CT) and sitting (US). Based on these tests, we conclude that the proposed registration system and measurement protocol allows relatively fast (52 landmarks/20 min), non-invasive, repeatable and accurate acquisition of facial soft tissue depth measurements.     

Facial soft tissue thickness in Japanese female children

Facial reconstruction techniques used in forensic anthropology are based on soft tissue thickness measurements. Many studies of facial tissue thickness in adults have been published that take racial background into account. However, the only data on facial thickness in children are derived from studies of American, British, and Hispanic children. The authors therefore measured facial tissue thickness in Japanese children, with the aim of providing data for producing accurate facial likenesses and to evaluate matching of skull-photo superimposition images. Cephalometric X-ray images give an approximately 10% enlargement from true size and can demonstrate the relationship between soft and hard tissue. Facial soft tissue thickness was measured at 12 anthropological points using X-ray cephalometry.     

中国土家族人群头面部软组织厚度的测量

目的测量中国土家族人群头面部软组织厚度。方法156名中国湖南西部土家族成年男女(男80,女76),经拍摄头面部侧位X线片,选取正中矢状面5个部位上的10个点,测量其软组织厚度,并对所得数据进行统计学处理。结果中国土家族成年人群头面部10个点的软组织厚度测量值,男性在(3.46±0.09)mm~(9.11±0.14)mm范围,女性在(3.29±0.16)mm~(9.05±0.18)mm;除鼻下点外(男性9.06mm±0.15mm,女性9.02mm±0.19mm),男女性之间各点均有显著性差异,且下面部软组织厚度较上面部大。结论土家族成年男女性头面部软组织厚度存在着性别差异和年龄差异。     

The Application of the Central Limit Theorem and the Law of Large Numbers to Facial Soft Tissue Depths: T‐Table Robustness and Trends since 2008,

By pooling independent study means (), the T‐Tables use the central limit theorem and law of large numbers to average out study‐specific sampling bias and instrument errors and, in turn, triangulate upon human population means (μ). Since their first publication in 2008, new data from >2660 adults have been collected (c.30% of the original sample) making a review of the T‐Table's robustness timely. Updated grand means show that the new data have negligible impact on the previously published statistics: maximum change = 1.7 mm at gonion; and ≤1 mm at 93% of all landmarks measured. This confirms the utility of the 2008 T‐Table as a proxy to soft tissue depth population means and, together with updated sample sizes (8851 individuals at pogonion), earmarks the 2013 T‐Table as the premier mean facial soft tissue depth standard for craniofacial identification casework. The utility of the T‐Table, in comparison with shorths and 75‐shormaxes, is also discussed.