Infant mortality in town and countryside: northern Germany, ca. 1750–1850

The discussion still continues among researchers about the causes for the decline in infant mortality in widespread parts of Europe at the turn of the 19th century. This article is based on sources such as unpublished statistical material from Prussia, parish registers, and lineage and village genealogies. As these sources are broken down by town and countryside and into various phases of infant mortality, they provide evidence for further reflection that may be fruitful. Thus, several causes for the decrease in infant mortality and ways of diffusion can be excluded and the impact of others delimited. The present study concludes that research should pay more attention to changes in infant care than it usually does.     

Public health measures against neonatal tetanus on the island of Vestmannaeyjar (Iceland) during the 19th century

The article presents a study of neonatal tetanus on the tiny island of Vestmannaeyjar (Iceland) during the 18th and 19th centuries. At an early date, Vestmannaeyjar was known for its high levels of mortality from neonatal tetanus. This appalling mortality is analysed, inter alia, on the basis of parish registers at the individual family level. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, more than three out of four newborns on the island died during the first 2 weeks of life. At the beginning of the 19th century, Icelandic and Danish authorities had already showed great interest in improving infant survival on Vestmannaeyjar. In 1827 a physician was appointed to the island and by the late 1840s the disease was successfully fought on the island. The achievement on Vestmannaeyjar is a good example of how the sanitary movement was able to bring about important improvements in infant survival long before the breakthrough of the bacteriological revolution.     

Infant mortality in Bremen in the 19th century

This article analyses the development of infant mortality in the port city of Bremen within a disaggregated framework, using the available material from civil birth and death registers, as well as the census returns for 1862, 1871, 1885, 1895, and 1905. The analysis focuses on a number of factors that affected infant mortality, including breast-feeding, female labor-force participation, social class, and migrant status. Particular attention is paid to the age structure of infant mortality in relation to stillbirths and reproductive mortality, as well as registered trends in neonatal and postneonatal mortality. The Bremen data also provide a basis for analyzing infant mortality by cause of death and seasonality. By incorporating disaggregated demographic and socioeconomic data, the authors are able to offer some new insights into the determinants of urban infant mortality trends in the 19th century.     

Highlights from a low-level area: infant mortality and social structure in eight East Frisian parishes, 1740–1839

Considerable variations in infant mortality rates have occurred within the low-lying region of northern Germany's East Frisia. Individual parishes can be assigned to three specific groups by registered mortality levels for the period 1740–1839. Differences also existed between parishes containing Geest (heathland), bogs, and marshland reflecting specific geographical and environment factors, as well as the structure of the local economy. In both Geest and bog parishes, the level of infant mortality and its trend over time were not homogeneous. In the two marshy river parishes, only environmental factors were significant; both registered the lowest rates of infant mortality. They had fertile soil, extensive grazing land, an exceptionally high number of large agricultural holdings, and households that were above average in size. By contrast, the highest rates of infant mortality were found in one bog and two Geest parishes, but these communities remained heterogeneous in terms of geographical size and population growth and density.     

Highlights from a low-level area: infant mortality and social structure in eight East Frisian parishes, 1740–1839

Considerable variations in infant mortality rates have occurred within the low-lying region of northern Germany's East Frisia. Individual parishes can be assigned to three specific groups by registered mortality levels for the period 1740–1839. Differences also existed between parishes containing Geest (heathland), bogs, and marshland reflecting specific geographical and environment factors, as well as the structure of the local economy. In both Geest and bog parishes, the level of infant mortality and its trend over time were not homogeneous. In the two marshy river parishes, only environmental factors were significant; both registered the lowest rates of infant mortality. They had fertile soil, extensive grazing land, an exceptionally high number of large agricultural holdings, and households that were above average in size. By contrast, the highest rates of infant mortality were found in one bog and two Geest parishes, but these communities remained heterogeneous in terms of geographical size and population growth and density.     

Differential infant mortality viewed from an evolutionary biological perspective

Evidence from family reconstitution studies suggests that variations in infant mortality may reflect differences in parental solicitude. For various proximate reasons that might originate from emotional, material or social interests, parents may be inclined to invest differently in the survival of their offspring. Evolutionary theory holds that the behavior-regulating mechanisms that cause differential parental care operate in a biologically functional manner. They obey the biological imperative of striving to propagate one's own genetic material in the gene pool of the population to the best possible degree, in view of prevailing socioecological constraints. From a Darwinian point of view, differential parental investment can be best understood as a socioecologically contingent tactical measure within an adaptive, i.e., genetic fitness enhancing strategy. Therefore, human reproductive decisions remain poorly understood unless their biological function in the Darwinian fitness competition is taken into consideration.     

Is breast best? Evaluating breastfeeding patterns and causes of infant death in a Dutch province in the period 1875–1900

In the Dutch province of Noord-Brabant, infants experienced extremely high mortality risks towards the final decades of the nineteenth century. It has been stated that infant survival in the past highly depended upon the fact whether a child was breastfed or not. In this article we will reflect on this perceived importance of infant diet in order to explain the high mortality risks of Brabant infants in the period 1875–1900. Using local aggregated cause of death data, a change in breastfeeding practices can indeed be detected. Between 1875/79 and 1895/99 there was an increase in the relative and absolute number of infants deaths as a result of diarrhoea and other digestive disorders indicating deficient hygiene and that fewer infants were breastfed frequently. By discussing differences between urban and rural settings, and between Catholic and Protestant regions, we will shed more light on possible mechanisms for this change in breastfeeding practices.     

Differentials in overall and cause-specific mortality among infants born in and out of wedlock,Stockholm 1878–1925

This study investigates differentials in the decline of cause-specific infant mortality by marital status of the mother in Stockholm (1878–1925) and factors contributing to the explanation of these differentials using computerized records of individual entries from the Roteman Archives. Included in the analysis were 120,094 children less than 1 year of age who lived in Södermalm during this period. Cause-specific mortality rates were calculated for three time periods. Cox's regression analysis was used to study the relationship between overall and cause-specific risk of infant death and of being born in and out of wedlock in relation to a set of variables. Infant mortality rates and mortality risks were higher among children born out of rather than in wedlock. The most pronounced differentials in cause-specific mortality rates between these groups of children were seen in cases of diarrhea. The socioeconomic status of the household head and number of children in the household were statistically significant with infant mortality, but explain only part of the excess mortality risk of children born out of wedlock. In Stockholm at the turn of the 19th century being born out of wedlock was strongly associated with poor health outcomes, particularly in diarrheal diseases, pneumonia/bronchitis, and immaturity/congenital causes.     

Urban infant mortality and religion at the end of the nineteenth and in the early twentieth century: the case of Ekaterinburg,Russia

Modern demographers analyse regional and other infant mortality differentials as important factors behind the current life expectancy of Russian citizens. Historically, however, the Russian Empire is simply displayed as one block with high infant mortality rates. Also with respect to cultural background factors, Russia is often perceived as religiously homogeneous with the Orthodox Church dominating the country. In reality, Russia has a long history of coexisting religious traditions. This includes both provinces with a majority of Catholics, Muslims, Buddhists or shamanistic populations as well as territories characterized by religious diversity and significant minority religions. Our project studies minority religious groups in the Urals, a province by the Ural Mountains stretching into Asia. While no territory can claim to be truly representative of this mega-country, we believe that this centrally located province is well suited to show some of the Russian variety, including differential infant mortality among the followers of minority religions, which is the topic of this article. We employ church record microdata to study Catholics, Jews and Old Believers in the main metal-producing city of Ekaterinburg.     

法律方法与法治:以对纳粹司法的反思为中心

纳粹政权在司法领域的工具和帮凶,是反形式主义的法律方法论和政治目的司法,而非法律实证主义。以具体秩序思维和具体的一般性概念为代表的纳粹法律方法论,突破了形式主义司法准则,并将纳粹意识形态和价值观提升为一种新的法律渊源和裁判规范。这种反形式主义法律方法论,是法治的一个陷阱。去法制化的纳粹司法表明:法律方法论若无视基本权利和普遍价值观,就可能沦落为当权者的作恶工具;法的形式价值和实体价值是唇齿相依的,要实现法治,二者不可偏废。     

Reviews

Books reviewed:
Petersen (ed), Love and Law in Europe
Bamforth, Sexuality, Morals and Justice: A Theory of Lesbian and Gay Rights Law
Griffiths, In the Shadow of Marriage: Gender and Justice in an African Community
Moore, Placing Blame: A Theory of Criminal Law
Weissbrodt and Wolfrum (eds), The Right to a Fair Trial
Armstrong and Bulmer, The Governance of the Single European Market
Woodhouse, In Pursuit of Good Administration: Ministers, Civil Servants and Judges
Fried, The Progressive Assualt on Laissez Faire: Robert Hale and first Law and Economics Movement
Kastanas, Unitéey diversité: Notions autonomes et marge d'appréciation des Etats dans la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme     

Taking Nazi Law Seriously

Book reviewed in this article:
Michael Stolleis, The Law Under the Swastika: Studies on Legal History inNazi Germany     

The Politics of Memory/Errinerungspolitik and the Use and Propriety of Law in the Process of Memory Construction

The post-Second World War trial for the crime against humanity from the start assumed pedagogical proportions, with the tribunals involved conscious that their legal verdicts would represent historical pronouncement and national values. The newly defined crime has been asked to institutionalize far more than the traditional task of adjudicating the guilt or innocence of the defendant. The trials themselves are meant to define the past, create and crystallize national memory, and illuminate the foundations of the future. I suggest that, by placing a burden on law that it is not designed to bear,we risk deforming law and legal principle. We risk creating an edifice that will not be equal to the task of memory, that will trivialize the memory it seeks to establish and fortify and, worst of all, that may betray law itself by subverting it from within. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

医政监督执法中的焦点问题分析及解决对策

通过对2006年青岛市卫生监督所医政执法监督处罚的93例违反《医疗机构管理条例》和《母婴保健法》案例的分析,可见其中最为显著的违法问题是医疗机构存在使用非卫生技术人员的现象,占到全部处罚案例的87%。成为卫生医政监督执法中的焦点问题。依法界定执法职责,梳理执法依据,分解执法职权,确定执法责任,是医政执法监督面临的重大课题。     

浙江省江山市2005—2008年非法行医行政处罚案例分析

为对非法行医现象和行政处罚情况进行分析,从而为做好非法行医查处工作提出建议。我单位通过对江山市2005-2008年共86起非法行医行政处罚案例,从案由、违法主体类别、处罚情况等进行研究。研究结果显示,86例行政处罚中,以农村和城乡结合部为据点,以未取得《医疗机构执业许可证》擅自执业最多,其次是使用非卫生技术人员从事医疗卫生技术工作：主体类别以个体为主;罚款平均为每件次2994元,处罚额度过低。打击非法行医任务重、难度大,社会关注度高,需要加大执法力度,加强部门联动,加快社区卫生服务能力建设和完善合作医疗制度,强化培训,实行责任追究,建议修改相关法律法规,有效打击非法行医。