Where are all the victims?

Research Summary The passage of new laws that criminalize the trafficking of persons for labor and sexual services has raised public awareness about the problem of human trafficking. In response, police must understand the problem, identify human trafficking victims, and make arrests. The numbers of victims identified to date, however, has paled in comparison with official estimates, which leads some to question the existence of a human trafficking problem. Missing from this debate is information about how frequently police encounter human trafficking and how well prepared officers are to handle these cases. Analyzing survey responses from a national sample of police agencies in the United States, we found that less than 10% of police agencies identified human trafficking cases from 2000 to 2006. Larger agencies were more likely to identify cases of human trafficking but the agency leader perception about the problem in their local communities as well as taking steps to prepare officers to identify and respond were the most important factors to increasing human trafficking identification by police. Policy Implications This study provides much needed information about why U.S. officials have identified so few human trafficking victims. By understanding how often and under what conditions police find, investigate, and prosecute cases of human trafficking we will be in a better position to identify and overcome barriers to police responses to trafficking and understand the limitations of official statistics about human trafficking. Data from a national survey also provide a baseline measure of police identification of human trafficking against which we can gauge the progress of future anti-trafficking efforts.     

Human trafficking: the need for human rights and government effectiveness in enforcing anti-trafficking

Human trafficking constitutes a global problem. Involving exploitation of individuals through forced labour, sex, or organ removal, trafficking is an egregious human rights violation and illegal in many countries. Although laws have arisen to combat trafficking, it has persisted and inconsistent enforcement of anti-trafficking measures has been a concern. Using new data on trafficking, the enforcement patterns of 168 countries from 2001 to 2011 are examined. Findings suggest enforcement is predicted by the interaction of states’ world culture ties and government effectiveness, trafficking flows, and other state-level political mechanisms. Theoretically important factors, such as female legislators or various economic measures, are insignificant.     

Trafficking in persons in Australia: myths and realities

In Australia, despite greater public awareness and acknowledgement of the problem by government agencies, trafficking in persons remains a phenomenon poorly understood and researched. The true extent of Australia's human trafficking problem is not fully known, largely due to the clandestine nature of this phenomenon. Anecdotal evidence, media reports, and statistical estimates without proper evidentiary bases are the only sources of information currently available about trafficking in persons in Australia. This article produces a more accurate assessment of the scale of trafficking in persons in the light of the open source evidence, thus contributing to the understanding of the immediate problem, and paving the way for further research on the many facets and aspects associated with trafficking in persons in Australia and elsewhere. The article calls for further research into trafficking and greater openness from relevant stakeholders, in order to clarify the facts about trafficking in Australia, and to help to dispel the myths and misconceptions that abound in discussing this issue.     

(Re)configuring the criminal justice response to human trafficking: a complex-systems perspective

Abstract

The multidimensional complexities associated with the criminal justice response to human trafficking are well documented. The transient and subversive nature of human trafficking as organised crime and the large number of multidisciplinary role-players involved in coordinating cross jurisdictional efforts to prevent, investigate and prosecute such cases, contribute to this complex undertaking. Complex systems theory suggests that a complex social problem such as human trafficking cannot be approached by using a linear or simplified lens, and requires a holistic perspective on the complex interactions between actors, and emergent behaviour in both the criminal justice system and the human trafficking system that it seeks to combat. This paper explores the characteristics of complexity, and uses illustrations from the lived experiences of actors in South Africa’s efforts to combat human trafficking, in order to demonstrate how complex systems theory could be considered and integrated into the criminal justice response to human trafficking.     

Human trafficking in the Philippines: the need for an effective anti-corruption program

An estimated three million Filipinos are at high-risk of being trafficked at any given time, representing 3.1% of the total Philippine population. The paper illustrates that corruption is a central issue in facilitating and continuing human trafficking in the Philippines. It demonstrates that if human trafficking is to be significantly reduced, then corruption must be curbed. The paper consists of three main sections. The first section is an overview of the trafficking problem in the Philippines. It discusses the scope of the problem such as the recruiters and traffickers, tactics used by the recruiters, and current transport routes and methods. The second section discusses current tactics being implemented by the government, non-government organizations (NGOs), and the international community to restrict human trafficking in the Philippines. It also illustrates that government corruption prevents the current tactics from being implemented well and in order to combat government corruption one must begin at the municipal level. The third section presents the inner workings of government and corruption at the municipal level, shows how the corruption reduces economic opportunities and legal equality for the citizenry, and how the loss of those opportunities and equality encourages migration from home municipalities—thereby encouraging human trafficking.     

Research note: challenges of identifying female human trafficking victims using a national 1-800 call center

Human trafficking is a complex global and national crime problem harming victims physically, psychologically, and financially. The Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA), Pub. La 106–386, and subsequent reauthorizations, provide assistance and benefits to foreign born victims of labor or sexual human trafficking who are here in the United States. The strategies used to encourage victims to come forward were modeled on those used in the anti- domestic violence (DV) and child protection movements. These include initiatives alerting the public to domestic violence situations through awareness campaigns to increase tips as well as calls for service to police. Other public service initiatives urge victims themselves to self-identify by calling 1-800 numbers. While these techniques have shown success in reducing incidences of domestic violence and providing help to victims, their use to combat sex trafficking has not produced the same level of results. This note explores the challenges for immigrant women victims to self-identify as trafficking victims and urges that evidence-based research is needed to determine the efficacy of a national call center approach.     

Human trafficking and criminal proceedings in Portugal: discourses of professionals in the justice system

Since the adoption of the UN Trafficking Protocol in 2000, the predominant approach to combat human trafficking has been based on the criminalization of traffickers in conjunction with a concern for victims’ protection. However, few empirical studies considered the effectiveness of those measures, which makes it difficult to understand why criminal cases of human trafficking generally result in few convictions. In Portugal, recent legislative changes have made the legal framework on human trafficking more comprehensive, inclusive and convergent with European directives. The effects of the implementation of those legislative changes on investigation and prosecution are still overlooked. The present study analyses the discourses of justice system professionals that concern the investigation and prosecution of human trafficking. It examines and identifies the factors that, in their perspective, block the recognition of the typifying elements of the crime of human trafficking and create obstacles to the prosecution and conviction of those crimes. Our findings suggest that legislative advances recognized by the participants need to be accompanied by other changes, some of a more systemic nature and others that are more specific. An efficient criminal procedure should include better legal phrasing of the means of evidence of human trafficking that is supported by objective instruments for this to be considered valid; the centralization of proof that the testimony of the victim has to overcome; specialized professional training of an ongoing nature; an efficient cooperation between the various law enforcement agencies at the national and international levels, with public prosecution services and magistrates; a greater clarification of the condition of the special vulnerability of victims and an informed perspective regarding the global nature of the phenomenon of human trafficking, one that is also sensitive towards the victim (e.g., in relation to the victims’ vulnerability, illegal status, and their difficulties in terms of social and cultural integration).     

Communicating about child sexual abuse with the public: learning the lessons from public awareness campaigns

Despite numerous public awareness campaigns child sexual abuse (CSA) remains a significant global issue affecting millions of children. This suggests that such campaigns have had minimal impact, and the paucity of good quality empirical evaluation makes it difficult to establish what has worked and what has not. This article considers how different and evolving approaches to public awareness campaigning on CSA since the 1990s have influenced (or not) attitudinal and behavioural change. The article reviews a number of key initiatives from around the world and identifies common themes that can inform campaigning and prevention efforts. Recommendations for further research efforts, social problem framing, and targeting are offered. The article concludes by arguing that more recent multi-faceted campaigns which combine a range of messaging methods are more likely to turn public awareness campaigning into public action campaigning.     

Representations and misrepresentations of human trafficking

This paper examines how the trafficking issue has been defined by various stakeholders, the public and governments, and how these various definitions of the problem may have influenced current trafficking policies. Has the issue of trafficking become politicized and its definitions “stretched” by stakeholders? Have special interest groups, and sometimes governments as well, exploited the trafficking problem to support particular agendas? Are the victims of trafficking always the primary concern, or are other issues pushed forward at their expense? To address these questions, we examine the different approaches to trafficking and the data used to support the various claims and positions.     

Fuelling traffic

Over the last decade, researchers and legislators have struggled to get an accurate picture of the scale and nature of the problem of human trafficking. In the absence of reliable data, some anti-prostitution activists have asserted that a causal relationship exists between legalised prostitution and human trafficking. They claim that systems of legalised or decriminalised prostitution lead to increases in trafficking into the sex industry. This paper critically analyses attempts to substantiate this claim during the development of anti-trafficking policy in Australia and the United States. These attempts are explored within the context of persistent challenges in measuring the scale and nature of human trafficking. The efforts of abolitionist campaigners to use statistical evidence and logical argumentation are analysed, with a specific focus on the characterisation of demand for sexual services and systems of legalised prostitution as ‘pull’ factors fuelling an increase in sex trafficking. The extent to which policymakers sought to introduce evidence-based policy is also explored.     

Human trafficking: Better data, strategy, and reporting needed to enhance U.S. antitrafficking efforts abroad

The U.S. government estimates that 600,000 to 800,000 persons are trafficked across international borders annually; however such estimates of global human trafficking are questionable. The accuracy of the estimates is in doubt because of methodological weaknesses, gaps in data, and numerical discrepancies. For example, the U.S. government's estimate was developed by one person who did not document all of his work, so the estimate may not be replicable, casting doubt on its reliability. Moreover, the quality of existing country level data varies due to limited availability, reliability, and comparability. There is also a considerable discrepancy between the numbers of observed and estimated victims of human trafficking. The U.S. government has not yet established an effective mechanism for estimating the number of victims or for conducting ongoing analysis of trafficking related data that resides within various government agencies.     

New laws but few cases: understanding the challenges to the investigation and prosecution of human trafficking cases

All fifty states and the federal government have passed laws to combat human trafficking, but we know little about their effectiveness. Using data from investigative case records and court files for 140 human trafficking cases in 12 U.S. counties and qualitative interviews with law enforcement, prosecutors, and victim service providers, we examined the characteristics of and challenges to investigation and prosecution of human trafficking cases under new state and federal laws. We found that few human trafficking cases are identified by local law enforcement, most cases forwarded to state prosecution are sex trafficking cases involving U.S. citizens, and state prosecutors overwhelmingly charge human trafficking offenders with other, lesser crimes. The legal, institutional, and attitudinal challenges that constrain prosecution of human trafficking are similar across study sites despite varying types of state antitrafficking legislation. Study results suggest prosecution of human trafficking cases is challenging. If new laws are to be effective, then local law enforcement and prosecutors should work collaboratively and adopt proactive human trafficking investigative strategies to identify both labor and sex trafficking cases. There is social benefit to holding traffickers accountable, but more emphasis should be placed on policies that identify and serve victims.     

Product counterfeiting and the media: examining news sources used in the construction of product counterfeiting as a social problem

Product counterfeiting has received increased attention due to its economic and public health impact. Media framing of product counterfeiting shapes how the public and policymakers understand the problem. While there is a large body of literature examining crime and the media generally, empirical studies have yet to focus on the media construction of product counterfeiting. This study presents the results of a content analysis using a random sample of newspaper articles referencing product counterfeiting in the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal from 2000 to 2009. Articles were coded for common patterns in sources of information. While the results indicate the presence of a wide variety of themes, product types, and industries, government and business sources are overrepresented among the sources cited, leading to some level of consistency in the presentation of the impact of and appropriate responses to product counterfeiting. Implications for understanding how the public and policymakers understand product counterfeiting are discussed.     

Hardened professional criminals,or just friends and relatives? The diversity of offenders in human trafficking

ABSTRACT

Human trafficking has been extensively discussed, studied and debated over the past 20 years, but many misleading images and stereotypes still exist regarding trafficking, its victims and its perpetrators. Trafficking is often framed as a problem of organised crime. The article problematises (1) the stereotypical images of perpetrators and (2) the involvement of organised crime in human trafficking, particularly in Finland, drawing on court cases that deal with trafficking in human beings. The article analyses, on the one hand, the characteristics of detected traffickers by reflecting the findings against the image of the ideal offender and, on the other hand, the role and involvement of organised crime in human trafficking. The article concludes that most convicted traffickers are not so-called ideal offenders. The variety of traffickers involved in the cases studied does not correspond very well to the rather stereotypical and oversimplified image of traffickers and ideal offenders.     

Perception vs. Reality: The Relationship Between Organized Crime and Human Trafficking in Metropolitan Atlanta

Since the enactment of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, there has been an increase in both media and scholarly discussions of human trafficking. Although most of these discussions have framed human trafficking as a crime committed primarily by organized crime groups, there has been very little empirical research examining the link between human trafficking and organized crime. In an effort to start to address this gap in the research, we conduct an exploratory study to determine if there is a link between human trafficking and organized crime in one of the Southeast’s human trafficking hubs – Atlanta, Georgia. We collected data on 24 federal human trafficking cases that were indicted in metropolitan Atlanta between 2000 and 2013. Then, we conducted a content analysis of the court documents for each federal human trafficking case and classified the relationship between organized crime and human trafficking using one of three categories: nonexistent, organized criminal network, organized criminal syndicate. For the majority of the human trafficking cases (n = 16), we found that there was no relationship between organized crime and human trafficking. For the cases that did show a relationship between organized crime and human trafficking, we found evidence of organized criminal networks in eight of the cases and evidence of an organized criminal syndicate in only one case.     

Human trafficking and criminal investigation strategies in the Amsterdam Red Light District

The subject of human trafficking has recently received a lot of attention from society and the world of politics. The criminal-law approach to human trafficking has also been placed high on the agenda of law enforcers. Human trafficking is, however, a complex crime with several specific characteristics. For example, there is often a complex relationship between victims and perpetrators of human trafficking and victims are often too afraid to file a report. How do the police and the judicial authorities work in the investigation of human trafficking in view of the specific characteristics of human trafficking? What choices are made in practice and what different police investigative strategies can be distinguished? What opportunities and risks are inherent in the choices made? In this article we answer these questions on the basis of four large scale police investigations into human trafficking that we studied closely. The four criminal cases all focused on violent groups of human traffickers that operated in the Amsterdam window prostitution. All criminal cases have since been concluded (in first instance). It turned out that in each of the four investigations the relevant police team applied a different investigative strategy: one investigation focused primarily on the victim statements, one investigation focused on public nuisance, one investigation focused on the evidence against the criminal organisation and one investigation focused on the offences (evidence concerning the exploitation of prostitutes). In this article we compare the four strategies applied and consider the consequences of each strategy for the course of the investigation and the criminal prosecution and what dilemma’s are faced in each strategy. Although the various investigations cannot be easily compared and a uniform ‘best’ strategy cannot be designated, the comparison does show that some choices or decisions entail great opportunities or great risks as regards the successful investigation and prosecution of human trafficking. It concerns, for example, the choice of involving local investigative services (district police) or the choice for short-term or, as the case may be, longer-running investigations.     

Strategic Research Partnerships: Constructing Policy-Relevant Indicators

Absent a set of indicators based on a set of valid constructs, it will remain difficult to determine the importance of strategic research partnerships (SRP) for the U.S. economy and the enterprise of science and technology in general. The purpose of this paper is to identify characteristics of a desirable policy indicator for strategic research partnerships. In choosing among the many possible conceptualizations and indicators of SRP, a framing question should be: “what is the public stake?” The fact that SRP activity has great economic import (still an open question) does not imply an equivalent government or public policy importance. This seems to imply, then, that SRP indicators should focus on such factors as the composition of R&;D (e.g. do they shift the balance in available public domain research?), impacts of labor and human resources, tax implications (e.g. use of tax credits, foregone revenue and its impacts), and, especially, public-private partnerships (e.g. how are government-sponsored or -brokered SRPs different from others?).     

试论中国反贩运人口法律制度的完善

贩运人口是一种现代形式的奴役,严重侵害被贩运者的人权,危害社会和谐稳定。虽然有证据证明,中国的贩运人口情况很严重和需要加大对反贩运人口的法学研究,但是如何发展反贩运人口法律,仍然缺少系统的分析和严谨的论述。面对严峻的贩运人口犯罪形势,有必要完善反贩运人口法律制度,为打击贩运人口提供更为良好的法治环境。     

非传统治安论

非传统治安是指在经济全球化和社会信息化形势下,伴随国际关系格局大调整和国内社会大变革过程而产生的社会治安新问题、新形态、新观念、新战略。非传统治安问题主要包括恐怖主义、宗教极端主义、民族分裂、毒品走私、网络攻击与计算机犯罪、地下经济与非法洗钱、经济金融危机与社会动乱、环境破坏、资源争夺与重大安全事故及群体性事件、人口膨胀与非法移民、流行疾病与社会稳定等问题。这些非传统治安问题具有暴力性和非暴力性交织、跨国性扩散和网络化传播、连锁性影响和迭加性威胁、潜在性积累和突然性爆发等特点。制定实施非传统治安战略应当树立科学的大治安观;正确处理国家安全与社会治安、非传统治安与传统治安的关系;完善国内国际法制,为应对非传统治安问题提供法律依据;建立应对非传统治安问题的政府危机管理机制;以及加强应对非传统治安问题的国际合作,等等。     

The fight against human trafficking in the Amsterdam Red Light District

The Amsterdam Red Light District is famous for its sex-oriented businesses. Although prostitution was legalized in 2000, this did not end some of its criminal side effects, particularly the trafficking in women. In an effort to combat human trafficking in the district, the local authorities launched the Emergo project in 2007. The core of the project is a multi-agency approach in which the municipality, the police, the public prosecution service and the Tax and Customs Administration cooperate closely. In addition to improving the effectiveness of repressive action against criminal infrastructures, additional legislation such as the criminalization of clients is also considered necessary to compensate for the shortcomings of regulatory measures.