Cynicism and job satisfaction in policing: Muddying the waters

Since Niederhoffer’s (1969) pioneering work, police cynicism has been a staple in research on police officers and police work, various typologies of police officers and definitions of the police subculture or police personality rely to a greater or lesser degree on conceptions of cynicism and suspicion. More recent research has questioned both the validity of measures of cynicism and typologies of police officers. The present study examines the link between cynicism and job satisfaction which is implicit in the literature. Findings indicate not only that these two factors are correlated, but also that relationships reported between cynicism and other factors in policing are mirrored by correlations between those factors and a measure of job satisfaction. The question which arises is, to what degree are correlations reported in the literature spurious, resulting not from cynicism, as was thought, but from a more generic measure of job satisfaction?     

Informing the Understudied R: Exploring and Advancing Typological Research

Creating offender typologies has become a growing interest and a potential method of improving understanding of programming needs and potential placements. Most typological research has only explored and described potential offender types. Relatively few studies have attempted to confirm the existence of created typologies or examine how offenders in each type predict important outcomes. Utilizing a large sample (N = 37,111) of reentering male offenders from Washington State Department of Corrections, we computed both an exploratory and confirmatory latent class analysis. After the confirmation of six offender types, we examined each type’s likelihood of several recidivistic outcomes. We anticipate that the described typology will assist case management, prioritizing offender needs, optimizing treatment services, and determining sequencing of multiple treatment types.     

The utility of male domestic violence offender typologies: new directions for research, policy, and practice

The development of empirically based behavioral and psychological typologies provides clear evidence that offenders vary across types. A review and synthesis of the literature reveals three types of batterers common across current typology research-a low, moderate, and high-risk offender. Examination of these types demonstrates that most male offenders do not escalate over time from low to high levels of risk. This observation refutes previous claims regarding a common consensus among researchers that battering escalates in frequency and intensity over time. There are particular characteristics specific to each type that establish thresholds distinct to each classification. Thus, it is unlikely that an offender will move from one type to another. Interventions targeted to address the needs of subsamples of offenders can lead to more effectively protecting those most at risk for future violence. Addressing the issue of woman battering through the prism of typologies has significant implications for research, policy, and practice.     

Do Academic Spin-Outs Differ and Does it Matter?

This paper questions the widespread tendency to view academic spin-outs as an undifferentiated category and explores typologies of companies originating in universities, using a Penrosean conceptualization of entrepreneurial activity. We initially identified five main types of business activities pursued by academic entrepreneurs, which we revised after analyzing a database of Cambridge University spin-outs and real-time exemplars of emerging ventures. The refined typology takes into account the dynamic of the entrepreneurial process. As the business models of ventures evolve they may enter a different category of business activity. We conclude by discussing the academic and practical needs for a better understanding of the heterogeneity of spin-outs, the diversity of which has theoretical and policy implications.     

A typology of hackers: Classifying cyber malfeasance using a weighted arc circumplex model

Cyber attacks continue to increase in frequency and variety, making cyber malfeasance a rising area of study and a major policy issue. Categorizing cyber attackers aids targeted organizations in efficiently directing resources to enhance security. However, extant hacker typologies do not fully account for the multifaceted nature of cyber malfeasance, including the rise in socially and ideologically motivated hacking (e.g. crowdsourcing, hacktivism). I clarify the current state of the field by uniting recent case studies on hackers with existing categorization techniques. Previous researchers have employed circumplex models—visualizations which depict relationships and boundaries between groups—as a way to organize hacker types. I propose an updated model—a weighted arc circumplex model—that is designed to represent the multidimensional nature of contemporary hacker types by offering a means of visually representing multiple motivations simultaneously. Finally, I demonstrate how archetypical circumplex models can be wed with sociograms to depict social and technical relationships between hacker groups.     

Oran Young and international institutions

Current understandings of global environmental governance owe much to the numerous theoretical, empirical, and methodological contributions of Oran Young. Over the course of 50 years, Young has created many of the theories and typologies we use to explain why international environmental institutions form and what types of effects they have and the conditions under which they have them. His contributions have been central to the development of the concepts of institutional dynamics, interplay, and scale. He has made major contributions to environmental policy globally and in the Arctic, both through his own work and by fostering the work of other scholars. This article summarizes the contributions Young has made to the field and introduces the articles in this special issue that honor those contributions.     

Classification Systems for Stalking Behavior

Stalking is a complex behavioral phenomenon that is unique in that it necessarily involves a prolonged dyadic relationship between both a perpetrator and a victim. Since criminalization of stalking behavior in the 1990s, different conceptual typologies have attempted to classify this behavior to assess risk and aid in management decisions. The authors reviewed the current literature regarding the most recent and accepted stalking classification systems. The three predominant stalker typologies currently in use include Zona's stalker–victim types, Mullen's stalker typology, and the RECON stalker typology. Of these, the RECON classification system alone was developed in an attempt to separate stalkers into groups based on previously known risk factors for behaviorally based phenomenon such as propensity for violence. Understanding and simplifying these classification systems may enhance the potential that new research will lead to evidence‐based management and treatment strategies in the stalking situation.     

Typologies of abuse among Afro-Trinidadian women

This study examines typologies of abusive behaviors among Afro-Trinidadian women. A total of 17 women participated in a 2-hour, face-to-face interview. The findings suggest that women experience multiple types of abuse including physical, sexual, and emotional abuse and controlling behaviors. This article discusses the implications of the findings for interventions with abused women.     

几种眼外伤鉴定时机的研究

目的分析几种眼外伤的伤后视力稳定时间,研究最早且合适的鉴定时机。方法将145件案例160个伤眼按损伤类型分成5组,研究几种眼外伤后视力水平、眼外伤类型与视力稳定时间的关系。结果不同的眼外伤,其视力稳定时间有较大差异,且视力水平的高低与视力稳定时间也有明显的相关性。结论眼外伤最早的合适鉴定时机既与眼外伤的类型有关,也与伤后视力水平有关;应灵活掌握鉴定时机,以适应司法机关的需要。     

Cycles in Crime and Economy: Leading, Lagging and Coincident Behaviors

In the last decades, the interest in the relationship between crime and business cycle has widely increased. It is a diffused opinion that a causal relationship goes from economic variables to criminal activities, but this causal effect is observed only for some typology of crimes, such as property crimes. In this work we examine the possibility of the existence of some common factors (interpreted as cyclical components) driving the dynamics of Gross Domestic Product and a large set of criminal types by using the nonparametric version of the dynamic factor model. A first aim of this exercise is to detect some comovements between the business cycle and the cyclical component of some typologies of crime, which could evidence some relationships between these variables; a second purpose is to select which crime types are related to the business cycle and if they are leading, coincident or lagging. Italy is the case study for the time span 1991:1–2004:12; the crime typologies are constituted by the 22 official categories classified by the Italian National Statistical Institute. The study finds that most of the crime types show a counter-cyclical behavior with respect to the overall economic performance, and only a few of them have an evident relationship with the business cycle. Furthermore, some crime offenses, such as bankruptcy, embezzlement and fraudulent insolvency, seem to anticipate the business cycle, in line with recent global events.     

Grouping of ammunition types by means of frequencies of occurrence of GSR

An attempt was made to build a classification scheme for gunshot residues (GSR) samples originating from four types of ammunition, collected from shooters' hands immediately after shooting. The secured material was examined with the use of SEM-EDX method in the automatic manner. The obtained results were expressed as frequencies of occurrence of particles assigned to various chemical classes. In order to establish the most discriminative of these features the Mann-Whitney test was performed. Cluster analysis was performed for grouping the analysed samples according to their origin, i.e. the type of ammunition. It has been found that samples of GSR originating from Browning 7.65 mm and Luger 9 mm ammunition can be fairly easy differentiated from the remaining samples, whereas samples of GSR originating from of Makarov 9 mm and these of Tokarev 7.62 mm could not be differentiated using frequencies of occurrence of particles in the selected chemical classes.     

A forensic international market survey of condom lubricants and personal hygiene products using ATR-FTIR coupled to chemometrics

Condom residues may be encountered in forensic investigations as traces in sexual assault or rape cases. Casework studies have shown the value of distinguishing condom residues from other types of personal products used by women. However, up to now, there has been no investigation of their chemical variability within an international context. This work employed attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with chemometrics to provide objective characterisation of condom lubricants and personal hygiene products from the international market. 166 samples were obtained covering five major classes of products likely to be used by women. Principal component analysis distinguished most major classes based on their spectral profiles, with subsequent support vector machine models yielding discrimination accuracies over 90%. A two-step approach was subsequently developed and enabled both classification and a discrimination accuracy of 100%. This could provide greater confidence in chemical discrimination of residues from these products when conducting investigations and help assess the origin of the chemical profile obtained. Further testing using three validation sets produced an identification accuracy of 100% for generic classes, which may allow investigative leads to be more readily obtained from recovered evidence.     

Typologies in Comparative Criminal Justice Research

This article focuses on typology construction as a focal technique in the analysis of crime and crime control systems from a world perspective. The relationship between theories and typologies is discussed. The author stresses the structure of theory when the world is defined as a system which includes sub-systems. Theoretical schemes depend on the existence of world sub-system typologies. Crime typologies and legal system typologies are needed because the formulation of a world law will be affected by the existence of typologies which clarify the similarities and dissimilarities of world legal systems.     

Developing an Empirically Based Typology of Delinquent Youths

A number of personality-based typologies have been developed to differentiatejuvenile delinquents. Some of these typologies have been faulted for theirmethod of construction, for their failure to provide outcome measures, orbecause they are dated and have not been retested with more recent delinquentpopulations. This paper describes efforts to develop an empirically derived,inductive typology of juvenile delinquents that can be used in appliedsettings to facilitate a better understanding of program outcomes and enableplacement authorities better to predict program effectiveness. The dataemployed in the analysis come from an outcome-based informationsystem—ProDES—that has been operational for more than4 years in Philadelphia. Unlike many such databases, ProDES was jointlydesigned by researchers and practitioners to serve a large system ofcommunity and institutional programs. Included among the outcome measuresare four standardized, self-reported personality scales that comprise 14subscales and form the basis of the typology. This paper describes themethods used to construct the typology, the substance of the classificationsystem, and its potential utility for program evaluation.     

Predicting the types of file fragments

A problem that arises in computer forensics is to determine the type of a file fragment. An extension to the file name indicating the type is stored in the disk directory, but when a file is deleted, the entry for the file in the directory may be overwritten. This problem is easily solved when the fragment includes the initial header, which contains explicit type-identifying information, but it is more difficult to determine the type of a fragment from the middle of a file.We investigate two algorithms for predicting the type of a fragment: one based on Fisher's linear discriminant and the other based on longest common subsequences of the fragment with various sets of test files. We test the ability of the algorithms to predict a variety of common file types. Algorithms of this kind may be useful in designing the next generation of file-carvers – programs that reconstruct files when directory information is lost or deleted. These methods may also be useful in designing virus scanners, firewalls and search engines to find files that are similar to a given file.     

Multi-technique comparison of source and primary transfer soil samples: an experimental investigation.

The comparison of soil samples is of long-standing and increasing interest in forensic science. Routine comparisons should involve the use of several techniques in combination. A wide range of analytical techniques can be used, choice being dependent on several factors including sample size and character, time constraints and cost limitations. In this paper results are presented for experiments carried out to test the effectiveness of four of the available analytical techniques (spectro-photometric colour determination, laser diffraction particle size analysis, stable isotope analysis and chemical element analysis) used to compare single source and primary transfer soil samples. Four soil types and five footwear types were used. All four techniques showed excellent precision and good resolving power between soil types. Only relatively small differences were obtained between source and transferred soil samples in terms of colour, stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios and elemental chemistry. Slight but significant differences were found in grain size, indicating that the primary transfer process is to some extent grain size selective.     

A Failure to Find Empirical Support for the Homology Assumption in Criminal Profiling

A fundamental assumption in criminal profiling is that criminals who exhibit similar crime scene actions have similar background characteristics. We tested this so-called homology assumption by first classifying, with pre-existing typologies, a sample of arsons (N = 87) and robberies (N = 177) into different crime types and then comparing the background characteristics of criminals who committed the various crime types. Results showed that using pre-existing typologies to classify the crimes into mutually exclusive types was not easily accomplished. Notwithstanding classification difficulties, the homology assumption was violated in 56% of the comparisons of background characteristics between the different arson types and in 67% of the comparisons of background characteristics between the different robbery types. Overall, 73% of the effect sizes for the associations between crime type and background characteristics were low to moderate (V < .3; d < .2). The implications of these findings for profiling practices are discussed.

Exploring the Justice of Punishments: Framing, Expressiveness, and the Just Prison Sentence

This paper examines views about the justice of punishments for offenders convicted of five major types of offenses—drug, violent, corporate, property, and victimless crimes. We focus on the just punishment and the just dispersion in the punishment distribution, together with observers' framing and expressiveness; and we test for interrespondent differences. Data are drawn from six U.S. samples interviewed in 1982, a probability sample of the adult population of a major city and samples of five special groups, prison inmates, police officers, law-school and high-school students, and Job Corps trainees. Respondents' judgments were obtained using Rossi's factorial survey method. Fictitious offenders were constructed by randomly combining offender, offense, and victim characteristics; and respondents used a line-matching technique to rate the justice of punishments randomly assigned to fictitious offenders. Analysis is guided by the framework for empirical justice analysis, which provides an integrated set of procedures for estimation and testing. Results indicate that respondents in all samples save one disagree with each other on the just punishment; and the six samples yield four distinct average orderings of just prison sentences. However, large majorities in all six samples find the dispersion in the punishments experimentally put into the vignette world to be too small relative to the just dispersion. More broadly, comparing the results obtained here from the probability sample of a major city with results from a comparable study on the justice of earnings, we find two interesting symmetries—approximately 1% of the general population is contrarian, regarding earnings as a bad and time in prison as a good; and approximately 92% to 94% of the population regard earnings inequality as too high and prison-time inequality as too low. Finally, this study provides additional evidence that the general population in the United States exhibits independence of mind informing their ideas about what constitutes the just earnings and the just punishment.