融入欧洲:欧盟东扩与俄罗斯的欧洲战略

欧盟东扩是西欧根据自身的规范和标准整合欧洲大陆的一次历史性机遇。欧盟东扩将在地缘政治、经济和文化等方面对俄罗斯产生重大影响 ,甚至直接影响到它的未来战略走向。与反对北约东扩的立场完全不同 ,俄罗斯默许并赞同欧盟东扩。在“双东扩”已成定局的形势下 ,俄罗斯逐渐形成了自己的欧洲战略 ,其要旨是全面融入欧洲的制度体系和价值体系 ,真正与欧洲融为一体。从长远看 ,俄罗斯融入欧洲几乎是历史的必然 ,从近期看 ,俄欧关系将有一个较快的发展。     

欧洲的边界在哪里--欧盟东扩与俄欧关系

欧洲边界问题实际是地缘政治和欧洲认同性问题.冷战后,中东欧国家的战略目标是"回归欧洲".欧盟的政治战略是推动和巩固中东欧国家的民主政体和市场经济,在欧盟与俄罗斯之间构筑一条和平安全地带.俄罗斯与欧洲"融合"同"融入"欧洲是两个不同的概念.俄罗斯是一支与欧盟对等的独立力量.     

俄罗斯债务问题及中国对俄资本战略

由于经济危机的影响,俄罗斯企业债务增加。西方资本趁机蚕食俄罗斯战略资源企业,加速了俄罗斯进一步私有化进程,普京的国家资本主义战略受到严重挑战。俄罗斯以发行欧洲债券的方式重举国家外债应对经济危机。在此背景下,中俄之间传统贸易方式难以满足双边经济发展的要求,中俄战略协作伙伴关系需要稳定的利益捆绑机制。金融危机给中俄经济合作带来新的机遇,俄罗斯对资本有需求,中国对俄资本战略投资有了新方向及可行性。     

科索沃危机与俄北关系述评

科索沃危机是冷战结束后俄罗斯和北约关系史上的第一次重大危机。本文首先考察了科索沃危机对俄北双边关系的冲击和考验,在此基础上揭示了这次危机对俄北双边关系未来发展以及欧洲安全建设的影响和涵义。科索沃危机打破了俄罗斯和北约寻求建立"平等的伙伴关系"以及"制度化合作关系"的神话,为日后俄北合作机制的调整和变革埋下了伏笔;这次危机也再次强化了美国和北约在欧洲安全新体系建设进程中的主导作用,而俄罗斯在这一进程中被边缘化的危险进一步加剧了。     

俄美分歧及俄罗斯加入北约的可能性探析

俄罗斯与美国围绕北约扩大所产生的多方面分歧,使俄罗斯能否最终加入北约问题带有开放性和长期性特点;俄罗斯要求加入北约及经历数轮扩大已发生深刻变化的北约保持门户开放,是衡量欧洲安全能否持久的重要标准。     

“双向失衡”结构与欧洲导弹防御议题中的美俄博弈

在冷战后国际力量对比和冷战遗产的共同作用下,后冷战时代的欧洲安全体系已经形成了一种不稳定的"双向失衡"结构。在这一特殊背景的影响下,从2002年开始的欧洲导弹防御议题最终演变成为一场美俄两国围绕着未来欧洲安全体系建构而展开的政治博弈。在布什政府执政时期,美国凭借自己在国家实力和导弹防御技术方面所具有的优势,通过单边行动,利用欧洲导弹防御议题同时向俄罗斯和西欧国家施压,最终引发了俄罗斯的强烈反弹。奥巴马政府执政以后,改变了布什政府在欧洲导弹防御议题上的政策,放弃了布什政府时期的东欧导弹防御计划,推出了新的"分阶段适应性方案",将欧洲导弹防御系统重新纳入北约框架,并且邀请俄罗斯参与导弹防御合作。美国的政策调整获得了很大的成功,不仅推动了美俄和美欧关系的好转,而且以2010年北约里斯本峰会为标志,使美俄两国在欧洲导弹防御合作的大方向上基本达成了共识。虽然在2011年底,备受期待的美俄导弹防御谈判最终未能达成一致,但这并不意味着双方合作局面的终结。"双向失衡"结构的存在限制了双方选择的空间,美俄导弹防御谈判对于未来欧洲安全体系的建构将产生重要影响,而且任何合作的结果都远远好于谈判失败所带来的损失。可以预见,两国总统选举结束之后,新任领导人在2013年必然将继续就此问题展开磋商,虽然谈判的过程仍将困难重重,但两国最终达成合作协议的可能性不应被低估。     

"9·11"以后的俄美欧关系

"9·11"事件出乎意料地促成了俄美欧关系的靠近,但它们都抱有不同的目的,俄罗斯经济发展需要美欧的支持,所以,"9·11"事件正好成为俄与美欧改善关系的契机,欧洲希望借此机会,建立一个"完整"的欧洲,美国则从反恐需要出发,认为没有俄罗斯的支持,反恐战争是难以取胜的,所以,基于各自战略的考虑,俄美欧走到了一起.     

欧洲安全秩序重构：《赫尔辛基最后文件》的历史启示

冷战时期，1975年《赫尔辛基最后文件》作为欧安组织前身欧洲安全与合作会议的第一个成果，是美苏全球均势和欧洲权力斗争共同作用的产物。该文件强调“安全不可分割”，具有约束性、清晰性、全面性、对等性的特征，为东西方阵营提供了对话平台与行为准则，起到了维护地区和平与安全的作用。冷战后，俄罗斯未能融入西方阵营，欧洲形成了分别以北约的欧洲部分和俄罗斯为中心的两个地区安全复合体。在全球和地区权力失衡的背景下，美国和一些西方国家背离“安全不可分割”原则，推动北约东扩，导致欧洲安全结构丧失全面性、对等性与约束性，两个安全复合体非但难以融合，反而矛盾加剧，成为俄乌对抗不断升温的深层次背景。2022年2月24日爆发的俄乌冲突使欧洲安全陷入新一轮动荡，欧洲安全机制建设的任务更加紧迫。欧洲若想重建持久和平，构建共同、平衡、可持续的安全框架，不仅应重温赫尔辛基精神，更需要直面全球和地区权力政治的新现实、新趋势，构建新的权力平衡基础。     

绿党的欧洲化与欧洲民主:功能与局限

基于传统的民主与政党政治理论可以在适当调整后应用于欧盟政治研究的方法论假定,文章对正在形成与发展中的欧洲政党之一的欧洲绿党进行了个例研究。在对其政治纲领、组织结构和政治参与等的量化分析后认为,欧洲绿党已经在相当程度上演变成为一个欧洲政党,但这更多是其成员绿党适应日益制度化的欧盟政治比如欧洲议会选举而不断欧洲化的结果,它在欧盟政体民主转型中的促动性角色依然相当有限。     

德国统一后的对欧政策评析

德国是欧盟的创始成员国,也是欧洲一体化不断扩大和深化的轴心.德国的欧洲政策直接反映了德国政府对欧洲事务的战略与态度,也体现着德国的根本国家利益,成为德国对外政策的基本支柱.德国统一后,由于国际背景和国内环境的变化,德国政府的欧洲政策在保持基本稳定的基础上,对欧洲一体化支持的内在动因、具体目标和实际政策都进行了相应调整.     

商业理念还是地缘政治?——欧美在欧洲对俄天然气进口依赖上的分歧根源及其影响

俄欧天然气关系是跨大西洋伙伴关系中极具争议的议题。欧洲对俄天然气的商业理念之核心,是通过制度设计约束俄罗斯行为的不确定性,同时通过器物层面的天然气基础设施建设和进口多元化,降低俄罗斯中断天然气供给的潜在威胁,最终使俄罗斯成为安全可靠的天然气供给来源。在有关俄欧天然气关系的地缘政治思维上,美国已不仅仅着眼于俄天然气是否会对欧洲能源安全构成威胁,而是更多地将俄天然气视为助长其对外行为能力的重要工具加以限制。随着欧洲对俄天然气进口依赖增强与美国经济制裁力度加大,美欧俄面临经济制裁与国家治理的困境。这一困境可能导致跨大西洋伙伴关系的裂痕加深。欧盟能否通过地缘政治转向应对不断加剧的天然气地缘竞争,取决于其将经济力量变为政治意图的现实可能与效果。     

从“北溪-2”项目看德俄关系及俄美欧三方博弈

作为两个重要的地区大国,德国与俄罗斯的关系对彼此和欧洲都有着重要影响。在双边关系中,能源因素因其对国民经济生产的决定性意义长期发挥着“稳定器”的作用。2018年9月,由德俄牵头,法国、奥地利与荷兰合资建造的“北溪-2”天然气管道项目正式动工铺设。该项目将使输往欧洲的俄罗斯天然气绕开乌克兰,经过波罗的海海底直接连通德俄两国,德国由此成为俄罗斯天然气最重要的转运国。此举虽然在双边层面上保证了德俄的能源经济安全,但在多边层面却招致欧盟、美国等多方反对。因担心会进一步加深对俄罗斯能源的依赖,欧盟委员会及中东欧国家欲诉诸法律对该项目施以约束;美国在制裁项目企业的同时转而向波兰、乌克兰等国出口液化天然气,在利用政治机遇抢占欧洲市场的同时试图制衡俄罗斯的影响力。在多方力量博弈中,德国需要在平衡俄美欧关系中付出更多努力。     

The Future of Energy Security for Europe: Turkey's Role as an Energy Corridor

The question of energy security is one of the main concerns for the future of Europe because of the growing dependency of the European countries on third parties, namely Russia, for natural gas. The future of European energy security will be shaped by the EU's dependence on Russia and its ability to find alternative sources of energy as well as multiple routes of transport. Turkey's location between the major energy producers in the Caspian and the major energy consumers in Europe has increased Turkey's potential role as the transit country. The article addresses the Turkish role in the transport of resources from the Caspian region to the European territory. As the Caspian region's resources provide a viable alternative for the EU to diversify its energy suppliers, Turkey emerges as a major hub for energy transport and assumes a greater role in the future of energy security. This article investigates the future challenges to the transport of natural gas into Europe and the role that Turkey will acquire as a transit country, largely replacing Ukraine. The article addresses the following questions: (i) what is Turkey's potential role for energy security in Europe? (ii) what kind of challenges emerge with the increased role for Turkey in European energy routes? (iii) what are the main sources of tension over energy security? The main proposition of the article is that Turkey plays a critical role for the EU's energy security, decreasing its reliance on Russia specifically for the transport of natural gas.     

Towards conflict or cooperation? The Ukraine crisis and EU-Russia relations

The Ukraine crisis and Russia’s contribution to it have raised numerous concerns regarding the possible emergence of a new ‘Cold War’ in Europe. At the same time, Ukraine’s popular choice and enthusiasm for European integration expressed clearly on the streets of Kyiv seem to have caused Russia to adopt a (neo)revisionist attitude. In this context, relations between Russia and the EU (and the West for that matter) have been limited, frozen and directed on path towards conflict. This article analyses how the traditional dichotomy between conflict and cooperation in EU–Russia relations was replaced by conflict in the context of the Ukraine crisis. The article contends that the breakdown of the symbolic and peaceful cohabitation between the EU and Russia has been influenced by the fact that both actors have chosen to ignore key tensions that characterized their post-Cold War interactions. The article identifies three such tensions: the first emphasizes divisions between EU member states and their impact on coagulating a common EU approach towards Russia; the second (geopolitical) tension highlights the almost mutually exclusive way in which the EU and Russia’s security interests have developed in the post-Soviet space; finally, the third contends that a clash of values and worldviews between the EU and Russia makes conflict virtually unavoidable.     

Russia,the death penalty,and Europe: the ambiguities of influence

Studies of capital punishment worldwide investigate how international influence affects the death penalty. We analyze European influence on the death penalty in Russia over the imperial, Soviet, and post-Soviet periods, using two parameters: the changing mechanisms of influence in each period and the death penalty's significance in the broader spectrum of punitive violence. On the first parameter, in the tsarist period, European influence on Russian policy was “productive” – exercised through prestige, moral suasion, and “diffusion.” In the Soviet period, European influence was blocked. In the post-Soviet period, European influence is coercive, as the Council of Europe has unsuccessfully sought to compel Russia to abolish its death penalty. On the second parameter, the death penalty in Russia has always been only one of many forms of state-sanctioned punitive killing. In consequence, the Council's involvement in Russia's death penalty has produced an incoherent policy outcome and has entangled the Council in Russia's authoritarian politics. Russia thus exemplifies the hazards of external involvement in death penalty abolition.     

Understanding Russia’s energy turn to China: domestic narratives and national identity priorities

This study investigates whether, as part of a broader “Asian Energy Pivot,” Russia’s energy giant Gazprom refashioned its export strategy away from Europe, and what impact such a reorientation might have on the EU–Russia gas relationship. It uses four empirical cases to emphasize the domestic movers underlying Russia’s eastward shift in energy trade, developing a constructivist theory rooted in the dynamics of Russia’s dominant public narrative and the contours of domestic politics. It argues that Russia’s national interests changed as a result of how Russian policy-makers interpreted and reacted to the stand-off with Europe, in response to what they perceived as Europe’s attempt to isolate it economically and geopolitically. Russia’s Eurasianists, who had advocated the notion of a necessary turn to the East for a long time, positioned themselves as norm entrepreneurs and their new interpretation of the preexisting material incentives shaped the future course of action.     

Unthawed: post-Cold War economic ties between Kaliningrad and Europe

ABSTRACT

Kaliningrad’s post-Soviet economic interconnection with Europe is encountering obstacles due to specific Russian governmental idiosyncrasies as well as its particular regional challenges. In essence, the Kremlin’s direct control from afar and European misgivings have influenced the territory’s economic development in relation to Europe. The distance of the region from Russia, exclave status, large size for an exclave, and conflicted history subject the area to contradictory forces. On the one hand, it links Kaliningrad to Europe because of a shared history and geography. On the other, it promotes a sense of political instability and geographical isolation that discourages economic integration with Europe.     

中东欧国家与冷战后北约的新变化

冷战结束后,北约并未因对手的消失而瓦解,而是通过扩大组织、出台新战略和实施新行动找到生存依据并获得新的发展。在北约的新扩大、新战略和新行动中,中东欧国家不管是主动参与还是被动接受,都起到了不可低估的作用。中东欧国家的加入令北约成员国从16个增至30个,拓展了北约的疆域。东欧剧变带来的国际局势的变化,特别是前南斯拉夫地区发生的战争促使北约提出新的战略概念,波黑战争、科索沃战争和马其顿危机更是成为北约新战略的试验场。中东欧国家参与了北约在波黑、科索沃、阿富汗和伊拉克的行动以及乌克兰危机发生后针对俄罗斯的军事部署,做出独有的贡献。同时,中东欧国家的加入也给北约在决策效率、行动能力、责任分担和价值观方面带来新的挑战。不过,由于中东欧国家的军事力量和国家实力有限,在北约内部的影响力不大,这些挑战不足以危及北约的生存。     

Russia’s energy relations in Southeastern Europe: an analysis of motives in Bulgaria and Greece

Although officially Russian state-owned energy companies operate as independent entities, their actions often lead to suspicion that they are acting as a tool of Russian state foreign policy. Countries on the southeastern borders of Europe – Bulgaria and Greece – are prime examples of where this might be the case, since they not only have a central position in Russia’s plans to penetrate European markets through new transport infrastructure but are also part of competing plans for routing non-Russian gas to Western markets. The main focus of the present research is on the natural gas and oil sectors, as these are the traditional foundation of Russian energy exports to Europe. The aim of this paper is thus to provide an objective, evidence-based analysis of Russian activities in the natural gas and oil sectors of Greece and Bulgaria in order to establish whether its actions have been implicitly or explicitly politicized and have served to strengthen Russian influence in the region.     

Correspondence

Sir Tony Brenton, formerly British Ambassador to Moscow (2004-2008), considers in this article the Asian dimension of Russia. He considers the historical connections and importance of Asia (as opposed to Europe) in the development of Russia and the historical balance between Asian and European influence. This section pays particular attention to the development of Siberia and early encounters between Russia and China. He then examines shifting Russian attitudes towards Asia at significant moments in Russian history including the 19^th century (the Slavophile Movement), the Communist period, the post-Soviet 1990s and the current era under President Putin. The implications of the Ukraine crisis and the current relationship with China is studied. He concludes with a discussion of whether Russia is likely to see its future orientation as more towards China and Asia, and what implications Russia's deliberation about its future direction has for the western powers.