日本观光立国战略模式及启示

在世界上主要发达国家当中,把旅游业作为国家发展战略的除日本之外绝无仅有。研究日本观光立国战略的内容及其政策措施与成效,并在此基础上实现从实践到理论的升华,即从日本观光立国战略的实践总结国家旅游发展战略的模式,进而为中国推动旅游业发展提供理论基础和理论参考。日本观光立国战略模式可以归纳为确定一个战略目标、制定一个战略规划、实施4个重点战略、构建一个支持系统等内容。日本观光立国战略模式对中国制定国家旅游发展战略具有重要的参考价值。     

当前日本实施观光立国战略的研究

2012年底,安倍晋三重新执政之后,为推进观光立国战略的发展,改组了日本旅游行政管理机构,并要求相关部门要紧密合作共同打造"日本品牌",以此吸引外国游客访问日本。此外,日本政府还采取对东南亚国家放松旅游签证管制、开拓穆斯林客源市场以及向世界推广日本饮食文化等措施发展观光立国。虽然日本政府采取了许多措施吸引外国游客赴日旅游,但是由于忽视了中国大陆客源市场的巨大潜力,日本推进观光立国战略发展的政策措施效果将会大打折扣。     

日本观光立国战略的新内容及其新特点

鸠山内阁成立之后,在其施政纲领《新成长战略基本方针》中,提出了2010年-2020年的旅游发展战略目标,即2020年前争取谤日外国游客达到2500万人次,广义旅游消费总额10万亿日元,增加就业人数56万人。2010年5月17日,国土交通省成长战略会议根据《新成长战略基本方针》的要求,制定了《旅游发展战略计划》,决定实施“三大战略、七大战术”继续推进观光立国的发展。由此,日本观光立国战略具有了新内容和新特点。     

Inbound Tourism Development at the Western Border Region of China

Based on literature review and statistics of National Tourism Administration of China and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) Tourism Bureau, this article examines the trends of inbound tourism development in the region. The results show that the inbound tourists in the XUAR are only a tiny portion of the Chinese, and the regional total which mainly is made up of domestic tourism originated from the coastal areas. Among the Central Asian countries, Kazakhstan has become the largest inbound tourism market of the XUAR. The article further suggests that it is worth to investigate whether the inbound tourism development of the region is affected by the geopolitical and geo-economic situations and the national strategic interests of respective neighboring countries.     

Book Reviews

Book reviewed in this article: Kelly, Philip. Checkerboards and Shatterbelts: The Geopolitics of South America. Austin: Hollander, Nancy Caro. Love in a Time of Hate: Liberation Psychology in Latin America. New Brunswick: Rutgers Fleet, Michael, and Brian H. Smith. The Catholic Church and Democracy in Chile and Peru. Notre Dame Armony, Ariel C. Argentina, the United States, and the Anti-Communist Crusade in Central America, 1977–1984. Athens Almeida, Anna Luiza Ozorio de, and Joào S. Campari. Sustainable Settlement in the Brazilian Amazon Weyland, Kurt. Democracy Without Equity: Failures of Reform in Brazil. Pittsburgh: Blight, James G., and Peter Kornbluh. Politics of Illusion: The Bay of Pigs Invasion Reexamined. Carranza Valdés, Julio, Luis Gutiéérez Urdaneta, and Pedro Monreal González. Cuba: Restructuring the Economy, A Contribution to the Debate Schwartz, Rosalie. Pleasure Island: Tourism and Temptation in Cuba. Lincoln Rotberg, Robert I., ed. Haiti Renewed: Political and Economic Prospects Adams, John A., Jr. Mexican Banking and Investment in Transition Enríquez, Laura J. Agrarian Reform and Class Consciousness in Nicaragua Lambert, Peter, and Andrew Nickson, eds. The Transition to Democracy in Paraguay     

Poverty or riches: who benefits from the booming tourism industry in Botswana?

ABSTRACT

Botswana is a key tourism destination in Southern Africa mainly because of the rich wildlife resources and scenic beauty it sustains. Since the 1990s, the growth of wildlife-based tourism in Botswana has stimulated the development of a variety of tourism infrastructure and facilities. This paper asks if these qualify as sustainable tourism. Using both primary and secondary data sources, the study reveals that foreign-owned safari companies and investors dominate Botswana’s tourism industry, leading to the repatriation of tourism revenue, domination of management positions by expatriates and lower salaries for citizen workers. Tourism also fails to significantly contribute to rural development in Botswana due to its weak linkages with the domestic economy. Promoting more inclusive and beneficial policies and strategies would allow tourism to become more sustainable, making a significant contribution to local development, and allowing citizens to finally see real benefits from an industry which is sustained by their local environment.     

Cape Verde and the risks of tourism specialisation: the tourism option for Africa’s small states

ABSTRACT

Tourism is a viable, but risky, option for many small island countries to integrate and compete in the world economy. This article examines tourism in the small island economy of Cape Verde. It assesses the risks to its long term development posed by the industry. The country has one of the fastest growing tourism industries in the world. However, this rapid growth is a dual-edge sword. Tourism-led growth results in real economic gains. However, the type and organisation of Cape Verde’s tourism industry magnifies the country’s already high structural vulnerability. Given its current structure and pace of growth, tourism increases macroeconomic risks and vulnerability. It is reproducing the same monoculture dependency that traditionally hampered development in African economies. The policy lessons are clear. Cape Verde must foster economic diversification while simultaneously engaging in strategies to mitigate the risks that accompany its biggest and fastest growing sector and export.     

Nomadic by nature? Contradictions and precarious work in Mongolian tourism

ABSTRACT

Mongolia's transition to a democratic, market economy has created widespread change, especially among pastoral herders. Pastoralists have been depicted as archaic and independent ‘nomads’ who exist outside the modern economy. Still, pastoral culture is a key asset in tourism products and advertising. Tourism could provide fair economic benefits, but inclusive growth depends on how shareholders participate. Using interviews with tour company employees, I investigate how tour companies incorporate pastoralists into their products. The results demonstrate several barriers to inclusive growth. Companies feel individually responsible for managing tourism assets, and to maintain the guise of pastoral authenticity, they limit pastoralists’ participation in business through informal and contingent work contracts. These contracts reveal problematic asymmetry and give pastoralists little job security, control, or access to employee benefits. These circumstances oppose inclusive growth paradigms and demonstrate elements of precarious work. The shared interest in maintaining pastoral culture may unify this fragmented industry.     

Book Reviews

Book reviews in this article: Fisher, John R. (1997), The Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism in America, 1492–1810 Stinchcombe, Arthur L. (1995), Sugar Island Slavery in the Age of Enlightenment: The Political Economy of the Caribbean World Posada-Carbó, Eduardo (ed.) (1998), In Search of a New Order: Essays on the Politics and Society of Nineteenth-Century Latin America Richardson, Bonham, C. (1997), Economy and Environment in the Caribbean: Barbados and the Windwards in the late 1800's Hill, Jonathan D. (ed.) (1996), History, Power and Identity. Ethnogenesis in the Americas Paerregaard, Karsten (1997), Linking Separate Worlds. Urban Migrants and Rural Lives in Perti Rappaport, Joanne (1998), The Politics of Memory. Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes Coronil, Fernando (1997), The Magical State. Nature, Money, and Modernity in Venezuela López Springfield, Consuelo (ed.) (1997), Daughters of Caliban. Caribbean Women in the Twentieth Century Dore, E. (ed.) (1997), Gender Politics in Latin America: Debates in Theory and Practice Tulchin, J. and Garland, A. (eds.) (1997), Argentina – The Challenges of Modernisation Brennan, James P. (ed.) (1988), Peronism and Argentina McGuire, James W. (1997), Peronism Without Perón. Unions, Parties and Democracy in Argentina Stotzky, Irwin (1997), Silencing the Guns in Haiti: The Promise of Deliberative Democracy Kay, C. (ed.) (1997), Globalisation, Competitiveness and Human Security Vaughan, Mary Kay (1977), Cultural Politics in Revolution: Teachers, Peasants, and Schools in Mexico, 1930–1940 Moore, Robin D. (1997), Nationalizing Blackness; Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940 Schwartz, Rosalie (1997), Pleasure Island: Tourism and Temptation in Cuba Aching, G. (1998), The Politics of Spanish American Modernismo Smith, Verity (ed.) (1997), Encyclopaedia of Latin American Literature Salman, T. (1997), The Diffident Movement: Disintegration, Ingenuity and Resistance of the Chilean Pobladores, 1973–1990 French, John D. and James, Daniel (eds) (1997), The Gendered Worlds of Latin American Women Workers: From Household and Factory to the Union Hall and Ballot Box . Lavrin, Asunción (1998), Women, Feminism, & Social Change in Argentina, Chile, & Uruguay, 1890–1940 French, J., Cowie, J. and Littlehale, L. (1994), Labor and NAFTA: A Briefing Book Bergquist, C. (1996), Labor and the Course of American Democracy: US History in Latin American Perspective Review of Electronic Sources of Information     

Developing China’s Hainan into an International Tourism Destination: How Far Can This Go?

The Chinese central government has identified tourism as an important means of stimulating domestic consumption and transforming China’s economic development pattern from investment and export-driven to consumption-led. According to the government’s new plan released in 2009, development of Hainan as an International Tourism Destination has been upgraded to a national strategy. By critically discussing the western theories on the policy-making process, this paper intends to adopt the case study of Hainan to specifically analyze its state-initiated plan for regional tourism development. Hainan is the only province in China to clearly be identified by the government for the development of its tourism into a mainstay industry. It is intended to become a test zone for China’s tourism reform and innovation and take a lead in development of tourism and associated industries. The government believes that the tourism sector is a key means of boosting regional economic development and reducing regional disparities between Hainan and the prosperous eastern provinces. Nevertheless, Hainan still faces serious obstacles to its goal of becoming a top Asia Pacific holiday destination. A lack of skilled personnel, backward transport network and poor service standards in tourism and hospitality are persistent and pressing issues. The plan for developing Hainan into an international tourism destination is unlikely to become a reality in the near future.     

白俄罗斯旅游业发展现状与中白旅游合作前景

在当今世界经济中,旅游业是发展最快、对全球国内生产总值贡献较大的产业之一,已成为世界经济增长的重要动力。而旅游合作正在成为国家间双边及地区多边合作的重要方向。在最新的《2030年前白俄罗斯可持续社会经济发展战略》中,旅游业已被白俄罗斯确定作为国家经济发展的主要动力之一。尽管在基础设施、发展资金等方面还存在诸多困难,在国民经济贡献度、市场受欢迎程度、服务形式与水平等方面还存在诸多不足,但是其在资源、相关基础设施建设、政策支持等方面已具备较好的基础,发展前景广阔。中白旅游合作,在资源、政策、市场等方面已经具备了较好的合作条件。通过实施第三方市场联合开发、区域旅游集群建设、消费支付手段便利化以及创新产品宣传手段等措施,未来中白旅游合作有潜力成为继中白工业园之后中白间务实合作的又一亮点,进而成为“一带一路”合作框架下的新典范。     

Book Reviews

Barry Shaw, ed., Brisbane: Corridors of Power Michael Rose, For the Record: 160 Years of Aboriginal Print Journalism John Ramsland, With Just But Relentless Discipline: A Social History of Corrective Services in New South Wales Tony Austin, Never Trust a Government Man: Northern Territory Aboriginal Policy, 1911–1939 Margaret Glass, Charles Cameron Kingston: Federation Fathers John Murdoch, Sir Joe: A Political Biography of Sir Joseph Cook Peter Golding, Black Jack McEwen: Political Gladiator Judith Brett, Political Lives Nancy Viviani, The Indochinese in Australia: From Burnt Boats to Barbecues Edmund S. K. Fung and Chen Jie, Changing Perceptions: The Attitudes of the PRC Chinese Towards Australia and China, 1989–1996 Curtis Andressen and Keichi Kumagai, Escape From Affluence: Japanese Students in Australia John Uhr and Keith Mackay, eds, Evaluating Policy Advice: Learning From Commonwealth Experience Glyn Davis, A Government of Routines: Executive Coordination in an Australian State Peter Beilharz, Imagining the Antipodes: Culture, Theory and the Visual in the Work of Bernard Smith Chris Healy, From the Ruins of Colonialism: History as Social Memory John Rickard, Australia: A Cultural History Helen Irving, To Constitute a Nation: A Cultural History of Australia’s Constitution Gerard J. DeGroot, Blighty: British Society in the Era of the Great War Walter Gratzer, ed., A Bedside Nature: Genius and Eccentricity 1869–1953 Thomas Bartlett and Keith Jeffery, eds, A Military History of Ireland William G. Naphy, ed. and trans., Documents on the Continental Reformation Andrew Bonnell, Gregory Munro and Martin Travers, eds., Power, Conscience and Opposition: Essays in German History in Honour of John A. Moses Alex Saranin, Child of the Kulaks Don Peretz and Gideon Doron, The Government and Politics of Israel Paul White and William Logan, eds, Remaking the Middle East Ian Cowman, Dominion or Decline: Anglo-American Naval Relations in the Pacific 1937–1941 Robert Buzzanco, Masters of War: Military Dissent and Politics in the Vietnam Era James H. Lebovic, Forgone Conclusions: US Weapons Acquisition in the Post-Cold War Transition Ramesh Thakur and Carlyle Thayer, eds, A Crisis of Expectations: UN Peacekeeping in the 1990s Erik Cohen, Thai Tourism, Hill Tribes and Open-ended Prostitution Rolf Torstendahl and Irmline Veit-Brause, eds, History-Making: The Intellectual and Social Formation of a Discipline P. D. A. Harvey, Mappa Mundi: The Hereford World Map Sheila Tobias, Faces of Feminism: An Activist’s Reflections on the Women’s Movement     

The reflection of a political conflict in mapping: The case of Israel's borders and frontiers

Studii de istorie (Studies of History), Bucharest, published by the Academy of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1968; 171 pp.

The Academy of the Socialist Republic of Romania, vol. 27, no. 6, November‐December 1976,

La pensée philosophique et sociale dans l'empire ottoman aux XIVe‐XVe siècles’ (vol. 6, nos. 1–2, 1968, pp. 76–102).

Bucharest at the Academy of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1974; 215 pp.,

N. p. (Bucharest ?), Youth Publications’ Press, 1965; 240 pp.

C. Giurescu's Amintiri (Memoirs), of which the first volume appeared in Bucharest, Sport and Tourism Press, 1976; 340 pp. Giurescu, who died in 1977,

Ghid de conversatie romdn‐turc (Romanian‐Turkish Conversation Handbook), Bucharest, Scientific Press, 1974; 245 pp

A. Baubec and F. Ismail's Mic dicfionar turc‐romdn (A Small Turkish‐Romanian Dictionary), announced for publication by Bucharest's Sport and Tourism Press for 1978; 300 pp.

Antologie de texte din literatura araba moderna (An Anthology of Texts From Modern Arabic Literature), The University of Bucharest, 1972; 687 pp.,

Antologie de texte din literatura araba clasica (An Anthology of Texts From Classical Arabic Literature), The University of Bucharest, 1974; 336 pp.

Curs de sintaxa a limbei arabe moderne (A Syntax Course For Modern Arabic), The University of Bucharest, 1973; 326 pp.

Nicolae Dobri?an's Curs de fonetica si morfologia limbei arabe literare contemporane (A Course For the Phonetics and Morphology of Contemporary Literary Arabic), The University of Bucharest, 1975; 608 pp.

Daniel's Orientalia Mirabilia, vol. I, Bucharest, Scientific and Encyclopaedic Press, 1976; 292 pp.

Relatiile romdno‐egiptene in epoca moderna si contemporana (Romanian‐Egyptian Relations in the Modern and Contemporary Era), Bucharest, Scientific Press, 1974; 304 pp.

Nicolae lorga — A Romanian Historian of the Ottoman Empire, Bucharest, The Academy of the Socialist Republic of Romania ('Bibliotheca Historica Romaniae’ series), 1972; 191

Istoria lui Mihai Voda Viteazul Domnul Tarii Române?ti (The History of the Voievod Michael the Brave, the Domn [= Ruler] of Walachia) was reissued, with minor changes, in Bucharest, Facia Press, 1976; 567 pp.

Mouvements nationaux et sociaux roumains au XIXe siècle, Bucharest, The Academy of the Socialist Republic of omania ('Bibliotheca Historica Romaniae’ series), 1971; 335 pp.

Paleografia ?i diplomatica turco‐osmana.‐ studiu ?i album (Ottoman‐ Turkish Paleography and Diplomacy: A Study and an Album), The Academy of the Romanian People's Republic, 1958, 359 pp.

Catalogul documentelor turce?ti (The Catalogue of Turkish Documents), vol. I, Bucharest, The General Directorate of the State Archives of the Romanian People's Republic, 1960; 683 pp.+ 40 pp.

Documente turcesti privind istoria Romdniei, vol. I: 1455—1774 (Turkish Documents Regarding the History of Romania, vol. I: 1455–1774).

Istoria Turcilor (The History of the Turks), Bucharest, Scientific and Encyclopaedic Press, 1976; 448 pp.     

Book Reviews

Books reviewed: Thomas Nicholas and Oliver Bernhof, George Forster, A Voyage around the World John, Merritt, That Voluminous Squatter, W.E. Abbott, Wingen Stephen Hamnett and Robert Freestone, The Australian Metropolis: A Planning History David Lawrence, Kakadu: The Making of a National Park Geoffrey Bolton and Jenny Gregory, Claremont: A History Heinz, Schütte, Der Ursprung der Messer und Beile: Gedanken zum zivilisatorischen Projekt rheinischer Missionare im frühkolonialen Neuguinea (The origin of knives and axes: Reflections on the civilizing goal of Rhenish Missionaries in early colonial New Guinea) Dorothy Shineberg, The People Trade: Pacific Island Labourers and New Caledonia, 1865–1930 Judith M. Heimann, The Most Offending Soul Alive: Tom Harrisson and his Remarkable Life Victor Treadwell, Buckingham and Ireland 1616–1628. A Study in Anglo‐Irish Politics Joseph M. Levine, Between the Ancients and Moderns: Baroque Culture in Restoration England Christina and David Bewleyl, Gentleman Radical: A Life of John Horne Tooke 1736–1812 Peter Dennis and Jeffrey Grey, (eds) The 1999 Chief of Army/Australian War Memorial Military History Conference Mary Lindemann, Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe Ian Germani and Robin Swales, Symbols, Myths and Images of the French Revolution. Essays in Honour of James A. Leith David E. Barclay and Eric D. Weitz, Between Reform and Revolution. German Socialism and Communism from 1840 to 1990 Peter Juviler, Freedom's Ordeal: The Struggle for Human Rights and Democracy in Post‐Soviet States Philip Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa Robert Aldrich and John Connell, The Last Colonies Radhika Mohanram, Black Body: Women, Colonialism and Space Mabel Lee and Michael Wilding, History, Literature and Society: Essays in Honour of S.N. Mukherjee, Sydney Studies in Society and Culture, 15 S.N. Mukherjee, Citizen Historian: Explorations in Historiography. Sydney Studies in Society and Culture, 13 Jonathan Spence, Mao Frederick C. Teiwes with Warren, Sun China's Road to Disaster, Mao, Central Politicians, and Provincial Leaders in the Unfolding of the Great Leap Forward 1955–1959 Dr Maung Maung, The 1988 Uprising in Burma. Monograph 49 Wim Stokhof and Paul van der Velde, ASEM: A Window of Opportunity Manoranjan Mohanty and Partha Math Mukherji with Olle Törnquist, People's Rights: Social Movements and the State in the Third World James Elliott, Tourism: politics and public sector management Bruce L. Benson, To Serve and Protect: Privatization and Community in Criminal Justice Alan Hunt, Governing Morals: A Social History of Moral Regulation Andrew Vincent, Political Theory: Tradition and Diversity Gerald Sider and Gavin Smith, Between History and Histories: The Making of Silences and Commemorations     

Book Reviews

Books reviewed in this article: García Canclini, Nestor (trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvina L. López (1995), Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity Beverley, John, Oviedo, José and Aronna, Michael (eds) (1995), The Postmodernism Debate in Latin America Stuempfle, Stephen (1996), The Steelband Movement: the Forging of a National Art in Trinidad and Tobago Browning, Barbara (1995) Samba: Resistance in Motion Vargas, Lucila (1995), Social Uses and Radio Practices: the Use of Participatory Radio by Ethnic Minorities in Mexico Paranagua, Paulo Anntonio (ed.) (1995), Mexican Cinema Valderrama Fernández, Ricardo and Escalante Gutierrez, Carmen (original eds), Gelles, Paul H. and Martinez Escobar, Gabriela (translation, annotations and revised glossary) (1996) Andean Lives: Gregorio Condori Mamani and Asunta Quispe HuamPn Hendrickson, Carol (1995) Weaving Identities: Construction of Dress and Self in a Highland Guatemala Town Morales, Edmundo (1995) The Guinea Pig: Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes Brandon, George. (1993), Santeria from Africa to the New World: the Dead Sell Memories Peña, Milagros (1995) Theologies and Liberation in Peru: the Role of Ideas in Social Movements Lovell, W. George (1995) A Beauty that Hurts: Life and Death in Guatemala Starn, Orin, Degregori, Carlos Ivan and Kirk, Robin (eds) (1995), The Peru Reader: History, Culture, Politics Bethell, Leslie (ed.) (1996) Cambridge History of Latin America. Vol. 10. Latin America since 1930: Ideas, Culture and Society Helg, Aline (1995) Our Rightful Share: the Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886–1912 Brunk, S. (1995), Emiliano Zapata: Revolution and Betrayal in Mexico Di Tella, Torcuato S. (1996) National Popular Politics in Early Independent Mexico, 1820–1847 Mallon, Florencia E. (1995), Peasant and Nation: the Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru Posada-Garbó, Eduardo (1996) The Colombian Caribbean: a Regional History, 187&1950 Joseph, Gilbert M. and Szuchman, Mark D. (eds) (1996), I Saw a City Invincible: Urban Portraits of Latin America Walter, Richard J. (1994), Politics and Urban Growth in Buenos Aires: 191&1942 Kleinpenning, Jan M. G. (1995), Peopling the Purple Land: a Historical Geography of Rural Uruguay, 1500–1915 Avellaneda, José Ignacio (1995), The Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Granada Craig, Alan K. and West, Robert C. (eds) (1994), In Quest of Mineral Wealth. Aboriginal and Colonial Mining and Metallurgy in Spanish America Velázquez, Primo Feliciano (1995, 3rd edition), Codex Chimalpopoca Bierhorst, John (1992) History and Mythology of the Aztecs: the Codex Chimalpopoca Nickson, R. Andrew (1995), Local Government in Latin America Smith, Hazel (1995), European Union Foreign Policy and Central America Bresser Pereira, Luiz C. (1996), Economic Crisis and State Reform in Brazil: Toward a New Interpretation of Latin America Camp, Roderic Ai (1993), Political Recruitment Across Two Centuries: Mexico, 1884–1991 Mainwaring, Scott and Scully, Timothy R. (eds) (1995), Building Democratic Institutions: Party Systems in Latin America Haggard, Stephan and Kaufman, Robert R. (1995), The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions Ryan, David (1995), US-Sandinista Diplomatic Relations: Voice of Intolerance Hall, Linda B. (1995), Oil, Banks and Politics: the United States and Postrevolutionary Mexico, 1917–1924 Philip, George (1994), Political Economy of International Oil Jones, Richard C. (1995), Ambivalent Journey: US Migration and Economic Mobility in North Central Mexico Dosal, Paul J. (1993), Doing Business with the Dictators: a Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala, 1899–1944 Jenkins, Rhys (1995), Trade Liberaiisation and Manufacturing in Bolivia Frenkel, Roberto (ed.) (1994), Strengthening the Financial Sector in the Adjustment Process Morley, Samuel A. (1995) Poverty and Inequality in Latin America: the Impact of Adjustment and Recovery Lustig, Nora (ed.) (1995) Coping with Austerity: Poverty and Inequality in Latin America Pattullo, Polly (1996) Last Resorts: the Cost of Tourism in the Caribbean Murray, Douglas L. (1995) Cultivating Crisis: the Human Cost of Pesticides in Latin America Chevalier, Jacques M. and Buckles, Daniel (1995) A Land Without Gods: Process Theory, Maldevelopment and the Mexican Nahuas Peritore, N. Patrick and Galve-Peritore, Ana Karina (eds) (1995), Biotechnology in Latin America: Politics, Impacts and Risks Stewart, Douglas I. (1994), After the Trees: Living on the Transamazon Highway Simonian, Lane (1995), Defending the Land of the Jaguar: a History of Conservation in Mexico Bose, Christine E. and Acosta-Belén, B. Edna (eds) (1995), Women in the Latin American Development Process Alatorre, Javier, Careaga Gloria, Jusidman, Clara, Salles, Vania, Talamante, Cecilia and Townsend, John (1994), Las mujeres en la pobreza, El Colegio de Mexico and Grupo Interdisciplinario sobre Mujer Johnston, Francis E. and Low, Setha M. (1995), Children of the Urban Poor: the Sociocultural Environment of Growth, Development, and Malnutrition in Guatemala Schneider, Cathy Lisa (1995), Shantytown Protest in Pinochet's Chile Fiddian, Robin (ed.) (1995), Garcia Márquez Marzan, Julio (1995), The Numinous Site: the Poetry of Luis Palés Matos O'Connell, Joanna (1995), Prospero's Daughter: the Prose of Rosario Castellanos Bergman, Emilie L. and Smith, Paul Julian (eds) (1995), ¿Entiendes?: Queer Readings, Hispanic Writings Agosín, Marjorie (ed.) (1995) A Dream of Light and Shadow: Portraits of Latin American Women Writers Halperin Donghi, Tulio, Jaksié, Iván, Kirkpatrick, Gwen, and Masiello, Francine (eds) (1994), Sarmiento, Author of a Nation     

The politics and ethnography of environmentalisms in Tanzania

This article explores the forms of environmentalism flourishingin Tanzanian villages and district and central government. Itargues that their apparent unity should be explained by severalfactors. In central government, there is support for environmentalistpolicies because they generate revenue. In local government,environmentalism diverts attention away from bureaucratic failure,while simultaneously being the subject of intense politickingamong the legislature. In villages, environmentalism reflectsrealities of environmental change, different ecologies of agriculturalactivity, competition and jealousy and the manipulation of officialdiscourse. This article highlights the diversity of sourcesof environmentalist prominence in different sites of politicalactivity. ^1. The word used for ‘waste’ is translated from theSwahili: ‘jangwa’. It is also translated as ‘desert’but can be used in a wide variety of contexts and scales. Ihave heard it used to describe small patches of land, and itis also the name for the Sahara. It can be used in both aridlowlands and humid mountains [cf. C. Conte, ‘The forestbecomes a desert: forest use and environmental change in Tanzania’sWest Usambara mountains’, Land Degradation and Development10 (1999), pp. 291–309]. I prefer the term ‘waste’because its central notion is lack of productivity, rather thanaridity. ^2. <http://www.ippmedia.com> Accessed on 18 October 2002. ^3. Cf. O. B. Rekdal, ‘When hypothesis becomes myth: the Iraqiorigin of the Iraqw’, Ethnology 37, 1 (1998), pp. 17–38. ^4. R. Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical islandEdens and the origins of environmentalism (Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, 1995); J. Fairhead and M. Leach, Misreadingthe African Landscape (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1996); R. Neumann, Imposing Wilderness: Struggles over livelihoodand nature preservation in Africa (University of CaliforniaPress, Berkeley, CA, 1998); D. Brockington, Fortress Conservation:The preservation of the Mkomazi Game Reserve, Tanzania (JamesCurrey, Oxford, 2002). ^5. J. P. Brosius, ‘Analyses and interventions: Anthropologicalengagements with environmentalism’, Current Anthropology40, 3 (1999), pp 277–309. ^6. J.-F. Bayart, The State in Africa: The politics of the belly(Longman, London, 1993); J.-F. Bayart, S. Ellis, and B. Hibou,The Criminalisation of the State in Africa (James Currey, Oxford,1999); P. Chabal and J.-P. Daloz, Africa Works (James Currey,Oxford, 1999). ^7. J. M. Klopp, ‘Pilfering the public: the problem of landgrabbing in contemporary Kenya’, Africa Today 47 (2000),pp. 7–28. ^8. The constituency building reached the British press. Cf. ‘Kenya’srulers clear way for drought and disaster by felling forestfor votes’, The Independent (London), 16 January 2002,p. 14. ^9. J. M. Klopp, ‘ "Ethnic clashes" and winning elections:the case of Kenya’s electoral despotism’, CanadianJournal of African Studies 35 (2001), pp. 473–517. ^10. P. Richards, Indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology andfood production in West Africa (Allen and Unwin, Hemel Hempstead,UK, 1985); M. Leach and R. Mearns, The Lie of the Land: Challengingreceived wisdom on the African environment (James Currey, Oxford,1996). ^11. M. Leach and J. Fairhead, ‘Fashioned forest pasts, occludedhistories? International environmental analysis in West Africanlocales’, Development and Change 31 (2000), pp. 35–59. ^12. J. Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: ‘Development’,depoliticisation and bureaucratic state power in Lesotho (CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 1990). ^13. Cf. R. A. Schroeder, ‘Community, forestry and conditionalityin the Gambia’, Africa 69, 1 (1999), pp. 1–22. ^14. Chabal and Daloz, Africa Works. ^15. Klopp, ‘Pilfering the public’. ^16. E. P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The origin of the Black Act(Pantheon Books, New York, NY, 1975); J. Scott, Weapons of theWeak: Everyday forms of peasant resistance (Yale UniversityPress, New Haven, CT, 1985); B. Berman and J. Lonsdale, UnhappyValley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa (James Currey, London,1992). ^17. J. Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, 1979). ^18. R. Willis, A State in the Making. Myth: history and social transformationin pre-colonial Ufipa (Indiana University Press, Bloomington,IN, 1981). ^19. See S. Charnley, ‘Communal resource use and migrationinto the Usangu plains, Tanzania’ (PhD thesis, StanfordUniversity, California, 1994); P. B. Coppolillo, ‘Thelandscape ecology of pastoral herding: spatial analysis of landuse and livestock production in East Africa’, Human Ecology28, 4 (2000), pp. 527–60; F. Cleaver, ‘Reinventinginstitutions: bricolage and the social embeddedness of naturalresource management’, European Journal of DevelopmentResearch 14, 2 (2002). ^20. J. Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases in African Ecology: A studyof the tsetse fly problem (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1971); J.Igoe and D. Brockington, ‘Pastoral land tenure and communityconservation: a case study from north-east Tanzania’,Pastoral Land Tenure Series 11 (IIED, London, 1999); J. G. Galaty‘Pastoral and agro-pastoral migration in Tanzania: factorsof economy, ecology and demography in cultural perspective’,in J. W. Bennett and J. R. Bowen (eds), Production and Autonomy:Anthropological studies and critiques of development (UniversityPress of America, Lanham, MD, 1988), pp. 163–83. ^21. E. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The short twentieth century 1914–1991(Abacus, London, 1994), p. 236. In 1961, US military expenditurewas 9 percent of gross domestic product (GDP); and althoughit was to decline (just over 5 percent in the 1970s), it remaineda powerful trope for explaining US economy, society and politics.Indeed the military-industrial complex is still important nowwith the Cold War won and US military expenditure down to lessthan 4 percent of GDP. ^22. Tanzania Wildlife Sector Review Task Force, A Review of theWildlife Sector in Tanzania. Volume 1: Assessment of the currentsituation (Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and the Environment,Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 1995). ^23. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, United Republicof Tanzania, Tourism Master Plan. Strategy & Actions, April2002 <http://www.tzonline.org/pdf/tourismmasterplan.pdf>Accessed on 9 November 2004. ^24. Brockington, Fortress Conservation. ^25. K. Hart, The Political Economy of West African Agriculture (CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 1982). ^26. DANIDA, Overview of Donor Supported Environmental Activitiesin Tanzania (Royal Danish Embassy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,1999). Spent in 1 year, this would be equivalent to just over4 percent of the country’s GDP. ^27. Leach and Fairhead, ‘Fashioned forest pasts’, pp.47–9. ^28. W. A. Rodgers, T. T. Struhsaker, and C. C. West, ‘Observationson the red colobus (Colobus badius tephrosceles) of Mbisi forest,Southwest Tanzania’, African Journal of Ecology 22 (1984),pp. 187-94. ^29. J. Igoe, ‘Ethnicity, civil society, and the Tanzanianpastoral NGO movement: the continuities and discontinuitiesof liberalized development’ (PhD thesis, Boston University,Boston, MA, 2000). ^30. Mr. Mbegu’s stance on the forest, and emphasis of theimportance of the red colobus monkey, encouraged villagers toname him Mr. Colobus. His name was unfortunately similar tothe Swahili for the black and white colobus. ^31. D. Brockington, ‘Communal property and degradation narratives:debating the Sukuma immigration into Rukwa Region, Tanzania’,Cahiers d’Afrique 20 (2001), pp. 1–22. ^32. Ibid. ^33. Presidential Commission of Inquiry Against Corruption, Reporton the Commission of Corruption (Dar es Salaam, United Republicof Tanzania, Tanzania, 1996). ^34. Brockington, ‘Communal property’; D. Brockington,‘Local government, taxation and natural resource management:corruption, accountability and democratic performance in Tanzania’,Development and Change, forthcoming. ^35. Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine. ^36. I was unable to discuss the purpose of the visit and its causewith the representatives. However, the circumstances and languagedo suggest that villagers were exploiting government rhetoric.This explanation was favoured by people in the valley with whomI discussed the case. The result of their complaints was a largepublic meeting which unearthed many of the problems of governanceunderlying the grievances. See Brockington, ‘Communalproperty’. ^37. With good reason — the concentrating of dung in kraalsis sometimes referred to as ‘nutrient stripping’and forms an important part of the patch dynamics of semi-aridrangelands. ^38. One of the most lively contests in the village while I was therewas between two herders who had broken that agreement. ^39. This is a Sukuma innovation. Weeding parties I observed containedmixtures of residents and immigrants. ^40. Nicknamed Chuma (steel) because it was so tough. ^41. The importance of herd boy skill was underlined by the lamentof a (Fipa) herd owner whose herd boy was going to leave hisemployment and who had remarkably managed to guard his cattlefor 3 years without causing any case of crop damage. ^42. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft Oracles and Magic Among theAzande (OUP, Oxford, 1937), p. 82, 540; C. Geertz, Local Knowledge:Further essays in interpretive anthropology (Basic Books, NewYork, NY, 1983), p. 75. ^43. ‘Local knowledges’ here could cover a vast arrayof understandings and beliefs in all parts of the world. Ithas proven particularly productive to consider the incoherence,incompleteness and lack of co-ordination of Western knowledgesand certain areas of supposed expertise (R. Grove-White, ‘Newwine, old bottles? Personal reflections on the new BiotechnologyCommissions’, Political Quarterly 72 (2001), pp. 466–72). ^44. J. Fairhead and M. Leach, Science, Society and Power: Environmentalknowledge and policy in West Africa and the Caribbean (CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 2003). ^45. Leach and Fairhead ‘Fashioned forest pasts’, p.35. ^46. K. Milton, Loving Nature: Towards an ecology of emotion (Routledge,London, 2002). ^47. I am grateful to Dr. John Lonsdale for this point. ^48. It is indicative of the importance of environmental concernsin Tanzania that its value can be equated with that of development.I have heard a funeral peroration for a village chairman whichconcluded with the praise that he had tried hard to bring developmentand conserve the environment. ^49. As the manager of the Mkomazi Game Reserve of northern Tanzaniatold me in 1994, when justifying the eviction of herders fromthe reserve — we cannot have these people living out therelike animals, they must develop.     

Book Reviews

Book reviewed in this article:
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: Fima , by Amos Oz, trans. Nicholas de Lange.
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: Operation Shylock, A Confession , by Philip Roth.
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: Unsettled States, Disputed Lands: Britain and Ireland, France and Algeria, Israel and the West Bank-Gaza , by Ian S. Lustick.
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: Palestinians: The Making of a People , by Baruch Kimmerling and Joel S. Migdal.
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: Arabs and Israel for Beginners , by Ron David. Illustrated by Susan David.
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: Egypt during the Nasser Years: Ideology, Politics, and Civil Society , by Kirk J. Beattie.
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: The Middle East and Problems of Democracy , by Heather Deegan.
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: Islam and Arabs in Early American Thought: The Roots of Orientalism in America , by Fuad Shaban.
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: Oil Monarchies: Domestic and Security Challenges in the Arab Gulf States , by F. Gregory Gause III.
REVIEW ESSAY: JERUSALEM DAZE: The Destruction of Yugoslavia: Tracking the Break-Up, 1980-92 , by Branka Magas.     

Book Reviews

Redesigning Social Inquiry: Fuzzy Sets and Beyond : Ragin, Charles C. Configurational Comparative Methods: Qualitative Comparative Analysis(QCA) and Related Techniques : Rihoux, Benoît und Charles C. Ragin Die Grünen in der Schweiz. Ihre Politik, ihre Geschichte, ihre Basis : Baer, Matthias und Werner Seitz (Hrsg.) Practising Citizenship and Heterogeneous Nationhood: Naturalisations in Swiss Municipalities : Helbling, Marc New Public Management im Parlament: Auswirkungen auf die Steue ‐ rungsfähigkeit in den Kantonen : Schmidt, Nicolas The Psychology of Nuclear Proliferation: Identity, Emotions, and Foreign Policy : Hymans, Jacques E. C. Nuclear Logics: Contrasting Paths in East Asia and the Middle East : Solingen, Etel Nonproliferation Norms: Why States Choose Nuclear Restraint : Rublee, Maria Rost L'empire au miroir: Stratégies de puissance aux Etats‐Unis et en Russie : Didier, Chaudet, Parmentier, Florent et Benoît Pélopidas     

Book Reviews

Books reviewed:
Lockhart, Of Things of the Indies: Essays Old and New in Early Latin American History
Barman, Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–91
Harding, A Refuge in Thunder: Candomblé and Alternative Spaces of Blackness in Brazil
Buffington, Criminal and Citizen in Modern Mexico
Ochoa, Feeding Mexico: The Political Uses of Food since 1910
Clarke, Class, Ethnicity, and Community in Southern Mexico: Oaxaca's Peasantries
Rovira, Women of Maize: Indigenous Women and the Zapatista Rebellion
Assies, The Challenge of Diversity: Indigenous peoples and reform of the state in Latin America
Tulchin and Garland, Social Development in Latin America. The Politics of Reform
Gelles, Water and Power in Highland Peru: the Cultural Politics of Irrigation and Development
Starn, Nightwatch: the Politics of Protest in the Andes
Payne, Uncivil Movements: The Armed Right Wing and Democracy in Latin America
Silva, The Soldier and the State in South America: Essays in Civil-Military Relations
Roniger and Sznajder, The Legacy of Human Rights Violations in the Southern Cone, Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay
Smith, Inevitable Partnership: Understanding Mexico-US Relations
Roniger and Sznajder, (eds.) Constructing Collective Identities and Shaping Public Spheres: Latin American Paths
Larraín, Identity and Modernity in Latin America
Caister, Mexico City: A Cultural and Literary Companion     

Reviews

Books reviewed:
Hassig Time, History and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mexico
Baskes Indians, Merchants, and Markets: A Reinterpretation of the Repartimiento and Spanish-Indian Economic Relations in Colonial Oaxaca, 1750–1821
Caldeira City of Walls: Crime, Segregation, and Citizenship in São Paulo
Caulfield In Defense of Honor: Sexual Morality, Modernity, and Nation in Early-Twentieth-Century Brazil
Earle Rumours of Wars: Civil Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Latin America
Clarke Class, Ethnicity, and Community in Southern Mexico: Oaxaca's Peasantries
Jones and Munck, (eds) Cultural Politics in Latin America
CEDLA FRONTERAS: Towards A Borderless Latin America
Tulchin and Garland Social Development in Latin America. The Politics of Reform
Paley Marketing Democracy: Power and Social Movements in Post-Dictatorship Chile
Crabtree and Whitehead (eds) Towards Democratic Viability: The Bolivian Experience
Bailey and Godson (eds) Organized Crime and Democratic Governability: Mexico and the U.S.–Mexican Borderlands
Adams Dollar Diplomacy: United States Economic Assistance to Latin America
Smith (ed.) Democracy and International Relations: Critical Theories/Problematic Practices
Angell, Lowden Thorpe Decentralizing Development: The Political Economy of Institutional Change in Colombia and Chile
Itzigsohn Developing Poverty: The State, Labor Market Deregulation, and the Informal Economy in Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic
Nencel Ethnography and Prostitution in Peru
Potter Deeper than Debt: Economic globalisation and the poor