略论苏联到俄罗斯法定义的变迁

从苏联到俄罗斯法的定义先后经历了三种主要观点的变化 :( 1)法律虚无主义法观点 ,( 2 )维辛斯基法的定义 ,( 3 )俄罗斯法学家理解法的多元化综合性观点。其中维辛斯基法的定义对中国法的定义产生了深远影响。这些变化主要体现了从法的阶级性观点走向法的社会性观点。当代中国不应当过分强调法的阶级性 ,社会性应当成为法的本质属性     

Criminal Justice in Soviet Russia

Compared to American criminal justice, the fabric of Russia's system is a tightly woven structure operating under centralized co-ordination. During recent history, the goals of Russia's criminal justice system have shifted from repression by terrorism to crime prevention through education and an emphasis on individual duty in peace-keeping matters.

The militia (police), created in 1917, has been mandated to prevent crime through intelligence activities, direct intervention, and citizen education. In 1966, it was given the responsibility for the supervision of offenders newly released from correctional institutions. Peoples Volunteer Brigades and the DRUZHINNIKS aid the militia in crime prevention.

The courts also make use of non-professionals in the persons of lay assessors to insure that the accused is judged by his “peers.” The court system itself is inquisitorial in nature as opposed to the American accusational model. As the accused person moves through pre-trial and trial procedures, one can see how his “rights” may be legally abridged at every step.

Russian courts have a variety of sentences from which to choose, ranging in harshness from public censure to death by shooting. Deprivation of liberty may be applied by degree from “education” to compulsory labor to strict incarceration. The Soviets are attempting an organized plan of diversionary sentencing, in order to reduce prison populations to all but the most dangerous offenders.

Correctional facilities depend on inmate commissions to keep order and motivate good behavior through group influence and peer pressure. Inmates as well as civilians have “a national duty to mind other people's business.”

In the United States, justice is fragmented into a variety of jurisdictions: municipal, county, state, and federal, each with its own law enforcement agencies, courts, and correctional agencies. Further, there is only limited coordination among the various segments of the system. There is little argument to the proposition that the American “system” of criminal justice is inefficient.

Unlike America's disjointed system, the Russian Criminal justice system is unified; militia (police), procurators (prosecutors), courts, and correctional facilities operate under a centralized coordinating body. This body is characterized by a unity of purpose and a high degree of systemic integration (Juviler, 1979, p. 1).     

Political corruption in Russia and the Soviet Legacy

Signs of corruption in post-SovietRussia are abundant and its immediate cause, the rapidmove towards the market in advance of theestablishment of a legal infrastructure, readilyapparent. But the unqualified use of the term``corruption' risks substituting liberal judgements ofRussian capitalism for an historically grounded andsociologically informed understanding of Russia'sdeviance from Western standards. Here it is arguedthat ``corruption' in post-Communist Russia can mostusefully be understood as the extension of Sovietcoping strategies, developed in the command economy,to the opportunities opened up by marketisation. Thisoccurred in circumstances where the bureaucratic andideological constraints of the Soviet state were notreplaced by compensatory institutional and legaldisciplines. Rather than corrupting an establishedsystem of rights and obligations Russian ``corruption'represents the extension of the informal culture andpractices of the Soviet system to the opportunitiespresented by emerging Russian capitalism.     

俄罗斯死刑状况论析

反对"国家杀人"的废止死刑运动已成为国际趋势。历史上,俄罗斯死刑经历了从私刑向国家刑罚转化之后,死刑强弱同封建政治统治变化之间密切关联,其间不乏废止死刑的努力。苏联虽大力推动死刑废止,反而出现了特定时期的死刑滥用,死刑长期处于"明废而实有"的状态。加快国际化进程,尤其是加入欧盟的努力,为俄罗斯死刑废止注入了强大的推动力。但与此同时,国内社会矛盾多发,有组织犯罪严重,特别是面对极端纳粹组织———光头党的血腥行为,俄罗斯完全实现死刑废止,面临着国内民意以及各种政治势力间的极大挑战。     

Index Based Regional Analysis: The Case of the Former Soviet Union and Russia

This paper presents a methodology for analysing inter-regional differences and identifying a suitable combination of policies for a set of regions. The methodology is based on the development of a composite index and is applied to compare (i) the members of the Former Soviet Union (FSU) and (ii) the regions of Russia. All variables considered and incorporated in the relevant index are (1) scaled from 0–100, so that the index is independent of units of measurement, and (2) weighted using survey results. According to the adapted regional development index Lithuania is on the top of the ranking followed by Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia, Russia, Armenia, Moldova, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. The FSU countries are positioned on a regional development index – per capita income mapping to investigate whether emphasis should be placed on regional, environmental or sustainable development policies. Finally, an index that incorporates various socioeconomic components is computed for the regions of Russia which are subsequently classified based on the value of this index. This classification shows that the regions with the best index values are in the Central–Southern part of the country (with the exception of Sackha Republic, which is in the West). The regions with the lower index values are in the Western part of the country and in parts of Central Russia (Mariel republic, Moldovia Republic, Perm region).     

论汪曾祺的艺术感觉

汪曾祺秉末了故土吉的民族心理和着恋乡土的变化传统,其艺术感觉的特征是,囝盈、宁青、印象主义式的,这与作所持的童年视角有关,这一视角一方面使作品缺少理性爱力,另一方面却增添了作品温柔蕴藉的诗意。     

试析1937—1941年的中苏关系

抗战时期，中苏两国的国际地位和实力的差异，决定了苏联对华政策在双边关系中发挥主导作用。随着国际局势的变化，苏联对外战略的演变直接影响两国关系的发展。当苏联战略需要与中国利益一致时，苏联大力援助中国的抗战事业，两国关系就能顺利发展。而当苏联的战略需要背离中国利益时，苏联外交的大国主义作法则越发明显，甚至为了确保自身的安全而牺牲中国利益。因此，在时局发生剧变之时，中苏对外战略重心的转移使得两国关系不可避免地趋于冷淡。     

论我国行业协会的法律规制

在现代社会,行业协会在各国的经济生活中发挥着越来越重要的作用。但目前我国行业协会在发展过程中却存在着诸多问题,不能充分发挥其应有的职能。其中最主要的原因就是我国有关行业协会的相关立法十分滞后,因此,我国有必要借鉴西方发达国家有关行业协会的发展模式与灵活的法律理念,尽快出台专门的行业协会法,从而完善对我国行业协会的法律规制。     

Resolving Problems among Neighbors in Post‐Soviet Russia: Uncovering the Norms of the Pod”ezd

The article presents findings from a qualitative study of how Russians deal with neighbors who have leaked water onto them. In the Russian context, this is neither an uncommon nor a small problem. Building on US‐based studies of neighborhood relations, the article lays out three alternative strategies: avoidance, self‐help, and third‐party intervention. The Russian participants lived in close proximity to one another and had little opportunity for exit. The study documents a strong preference for self‐help, confirming the potency of the relational distance hypothesis for Russia. In contrast to their US counterparts, the Russian participants' lack of exit did not give rise to more intense and prolonged disputes. The findings suggest that there is a strong informal norm in favor of neighbors resolving disputes among themselves and that the residents who share common entryways (pod”ezdy) work out the parameters of acceptable behavior over time. These informal norms shape Russians' legal consciousness.     

论中国第三代电影导演的艺术创造

中国第三代电影导演群体在时代政治的需求和制约下坚守电影理想和艺术使命。但由于左倾政治运动的干扰,他们在长期的电影实践中也逐渐形成一种"不求艺术有功,但求政治无过"的消极心态,这对他们的艺术创造构成负面影响。然而,第三代导演仍然在镜头运用、画面构图、蒙太奇艺术,以及电影的大众化、民族化等方面进行了深具时代特色的艺术创造。此外,第三代导演的艺术创造与中国电影传统的关系也值得深思。     

论俄罗斯宪法法院对公民基本权利的保障

宪法诉讼是现代保障公民基本权利最为有效的方式。在俄罗斯,履行宪法诉讼职能的机构是宪法法院。实践中,宪法法院主要依托宪法诉愿制度,适用蕴含比例原则的俄罗斯宪法第55条第3款作为审查基准保障公民基本权利。此外,宪法法院还常在判决中援引国际条约和欧洲人权法院判例,其目的是用先进的权利保障标准来要求和促进俄罗斯的公民基本权利保障。     

论社会协商机制 --以行业协会为视角

以商谈、对话为主要形式的协商机制已成为当今世界解决各种冲突与争议的有效方式.本文对社会协商机制的理论及模式等问题进行研究,并结合中国实践,指出中国行业协会的社会协商机制的模式定位及相应法律完善的措施,以期对中国的协商实践有一定的理论指导意义.     

论对我国非纯粹民间性行业协会的检察监督

我国现有行业协会数量众多,如有会计师协会、律师协会、建筑师协会等等.据统计,截止2007年底,我国共有各类民间组织38.1万个①,民间组织已涉及产业部门、社会服务与社会福利、公共事务、信息与技术服务、卫生、体育、教育、文化艺术等各个领域.按照不同的标准,我国的行业协会分别可以分为若干种类.我们认为,以行业协会的民间性程度为标准,可将行业协会分为纯粹民间性行业协会和非纯粹民间性行业协会.纯粹民间性行业协会在我国所占的比例并不大,在社会生活中所起的作用也尚显微弱.     

法律观念更新与行业协会发展解困

行业协会在经济发展中的重要性并未真正引起人们重视。行业协会发展现在面临着诸多困难,但法律观念的障碍更易被忽视。由于我国政治、经济、文化等领域的影响,法律观念已严重制约行业协会的发展。因此,我们必须更新法律观念,从而促进行业协会的发展。     

美俄商用密码法律监管制度比较

商用密码是电子商务的关键技术,也是保护敏感信息的重要手段。目前,世界各国都在积极调整其商用密码政策和法律规范,力争在信息社会取得优势地位。我们在借鉴国际社会的密码法制经验时,也需要探索密码监管法律背后的国家政治、经济、军事、文化和技术基础。美国和俄罗斯在密码技术方面的领先优势以及对国家利益的考量是其商用密码监管法律制度的重要基础,而维护国家安全、商业利益和用户权利之间的动态平衡则是设计商用密码监管法律制度的核心。     

论欧阳修对赋境赋艺的开拓

欧阳修的辞赋创作从内容到形式均进行了极为有益的探索.他的辞赋积极反映现实,针砭时弊;同时又重视辞赋的抒情功能和娱乐功能,重新确立了辞赋作为文学作品的审美价值.在谮散体文风向各种文体浸透的背景下,他以简练传神、以散御骈的行文风格树立了适应时代的美文标准,确立了文赋的地位,突破了不同赋体的文体风格.     

寻找丢失的人格--从罗马、德国、拉丁法族国家、前苏联、俄罗斯到中国

人格即法律主体资格。在罗马法中,人格———身份具有公私法混杂的特征;在近代欧洲大陆国家开始的法典化过程中,拉丁法族国家民法中的人格一词,依然包含公法因素,而德国法则创造权利能力概念取代人格,试图将人格私法化,但这样做却丢失了人格;前苏联民法中,人格则具有主体性要素之法律保护意义上的人格权,知识产权中的人格权,法人的人格权三种含义;新制定的俄罗斯民法典则回归到传统的主体资格意义上的人格概念。在我国民法典制定时,应恢复传统意义上的人格。     

The urban household in Russia and the Soviet Union, 1900–2000: Patterns of family formation in a turbulent century

Starting from census data on co-residence and household composition, the authors analyse principles of family organisation and family formation in twentieth-century urban Russia and the Soviet Union. The article uses an adapted version of the classification of households developed by Peter Laslett and Eugene Hammel to study variation in household structure for successive population censuses. Changes in this variation between cross-sections are explained with the help of additional quantitative and qualitative data and are linked to the fundamental demographic, social and economic shifts which took place in Russian society in the course of the twentieth century. The article finds a family system characterised by a tendency towards nuclear family formation, but incorporating a fairly stable element of household extension. Co-residence of three generations was both an answer to a perennial housing problem and offered important advantages in the sphere of childcare and care for the elderly. Variation and fluctuation in household structure are found to be most pronounced during the turbulent first half of the century. After a period of stability during the post-war decades of Soviet rule, post-Soviet transformations provoke new changes.     

论行业协会组织的法律性质——从制度动力学视角

行业协会是指同一行业的商事主体为增进共同利益、维护合法权益而自愿组成的非营利性社会团体法人。从制度动力学的视角来看,行业协会组织是商品经济发展到一定阶段,为满足商事主体间顺利交易的需要,作为一种契约履约机制自发形成并不断演进的。由其生成路径决定,行业协会法人具有非营利性、互益性,是一类私法人。