The New International Health Regulations: An Historic Development for International Law and Public Health

The adoption of the new International Health Regulations (IHR) in May 2005 represents an historic development for international law and public health. This article describes the IHR revision process and analyzes why the new IHR constitute an advance in global health governance.     

病毒共享的国际法思考

从条约解释角度而言,病毒材料构成国家主权管辖范围内的“遗传资源”或“自然资源”,但其获取是否应遵循“事先知情同意”原则尚存在争议。国际专利体制激励基于病毒材料的医药研发,并不直接导致生物剽窃或医药可及性难题,但问题在于没有规定病毒材料的所有权和获取条件,故存在保护上的不对称性。从本质上说,病毒共享之争体现国际法上分配正义的缺失,故无法破解全球公共卫生难题,促进发展中国家履行健康权。为此,《国际卫生条例》需进一步明确健康权的国际责任,构建公平的“材料转移”机制。我国既要推动国际法上分配正义的实现和相关制度的非倾覆性变革,也可结合自身国情和优势发挥更大的建设性作用。     

论《国际卫生条例》在中国的适用

为控制传染病而行使国境卫生检疫主权时必须遵循<国际卫生条例>.<国际卫生条例>在我国的适用采取的是混合模式,即融合了"纳入"与"转化"和其他方法.依据修订后的<国际卫生条例>、<国境卫生检疫法>需要进行全面的变革.此外,我们必须解决国境卫生执法和司法中存在的问题.     

我国卫生检疫法律法规与国际接轨刍议

新修订的《国际卫生条例》(IHR)于2005年提交第58届世界卫生大会审议通过,并于2006年1月1日起正式实施。作为公共卫生方面唯一的一部国际法,对世界卫生组织(WHO)所有成员国均具有约束力。本文对“新条例”与检疫法及实施细则中的定义进行比较,并对其中一些较为重要的定义进行具体分析,旨在找出两者之间存在的差异,对其更好的与国际接轨提出一些个人的意见。     

与公共健康危机有关的知识产权国际保护

发展中国家面临着严重的公共健康危机,Trips协议框架下的知识产权国际保护制度不利于发展中国家公共健康危机的解决。Doha宣言及其第6段的执行是发展中国家成员及其发展事业的一个胜利。21世纪知识产权国际保护制度应向更理性的方向发展,我国应充分利用现有制度资源,积极参与将来制度的制定。     

从国际法角度论多边贸易自由化与国内公共健康政策的冲突和协调

WTO成员以公共健康为口号发起的贸易限制措施与各国在WTO下的贸易自由化的义务存在着冲突。GATT/WTO的有关规则和实践显示出多边贸易体制对国内公共健康政策的态度从“忽视”到“有条件肯定”的演变过程。具体来说,GATT时期的规则和争端解决实践不利于国内公共健康政策的实施,而WTO时期出现了有利于国内公共健康政策实施的变化。在WTO现行体制下,各国在实施为公共健康目标的贸易措施时,应符合特定目标的合法性、目标与手段的一致性、目标与手段的相称性等一般要求和相关的具体要求。     

澳大利亚基本公共卫生服务的法律保障（一）——公共卫生的法律支撑

通过国际视角分析,本文研究了澳大利亚的法律体系、公共卫生法律的内涵以及公共卫生职能的法律界定,为进一步研究澳大利亚依法为国民提供基本公共卫生服务奠定基础。     

Challenging custom: rethinking national population surveillance policy in a global public health age

This article examines the current state of disease surveillance and reporting in the United States and seeks to answer two central questions: first, whether the increasing emphasis on the global importance of public health policies compels a fundamental reexamination of the long-standing deferential approach to state power where matters of population health surveillance are concerned and, second, how the nation's long-standing deferential legal customs might be modified to address the growing emphasis on global public health policy that is undergirded by technological advances. We examine the International Health Regulations, or IHR (2005), and suggest that these regulations offer a powerful impetus for reevaluating U.S. legal custom concerning the policy and practice of population health surveillance, not only as a matter of U.S. law but also as a core dimension of U.S. legal obligations to other nations, as embodied in international agreements and treaties. We find that if the political will exists to change the domestic disease surveillance and reporting system, the federal government has the power to act. Questions remain, however, about whether the public health and legislative communities are willing to challenge current customs or even if they desire to do so.     

国内公法对国际法的影响

国际法包括私法意义上的国际法和公法意义上的国际法。近现代国际法本质上是一种私法意义上的国际法,但国际交往的日益频繁与复杂必然要求建立某种形式的等级制与集中化架构,公法意义上的国际法应运而生。作为一种后发的法律秩序,国际法受到较为成熟的国内法的影响是很自然的。在借鉴国内公法发展国际法时面临某些重要的障碍,也会产生不可忽视的风险,应该予以充分的注意。国内公法日益影响国际法的趋势对于中国的国际法理论与实践将产生重要的影响。     

21世纪中国国际私法的发展与展望

二十世纪国际私法的立法和学说的发展历史值得借鉴,二十一世纪世界经济一体化的发展,使得整个国际社会的国际私法呈现出多种多样的发展趋势;结合中国国情,我国国际私法未来发展,必须理论联系实践,建立中国特色的国际私法学,制定颁布中国的国际私法法典,使二十一世纪中国国际私法的发展具有广阔的前景。     

我国公共卫生领域公民权利的法律研究热点及对策

公民权利保护在公共卫生领域法律处于核心地位，目前我国学者对其研究热点主要包括人身自由权、财产权、知情权、隐私权，但研究存在对公共卫生领域公民权利界定不够统一、法律依据不尽准确、研究着眼点有些片面等不足，今后应高度重视公共卫生公民权利的研究，加强研究其体系及其法律渊源，优先现有公共卫生法律体系的完善和配套，积极开展国际比较研究，辨证理解各公民权利之间的相互关系。     

International Law and the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict: Actual Problems and Challenges

Cultural property may be under serious threat in the event of armed conflict. In the twentieth century, there were clear developments in international law aimed at preventing and punishing war crimes against cultural property. Despite this, the destruction of cultural property during armed conflict has continued. This article questions whether the existing international law standards with regard to the protection of cultural property during armed conflict are satisfactory, and whether or not a new instrument could be valuable. Although considerable shortcomings remain, instead of pleading for a new instrument, this article advocates raising ratification rates, the enhancement of the implementation of existing instruments, and monitoring and sanctioning mechanisms.     

Nanotechnology in Global Medicine and Human Biosecurity: Private Interests, Policy Dilemmas, and the Calibration of Public Health Law

This paper considers how best to approach dilemmas posed to global health and biosecurity policy by increasing advances in practical applications of nanotechnology. The type of nano-technology policy dilemmas discussed include: (1) expenditure of public funds, (2) public-funded research priorities, (3) public confidence in government and science and, finally, (4) public safety. The article examines the value in this context of a legal obligation that the development of relevant public health law be calibrated against less corporate-influenced norms issuing from bioethics and international human rights.     

Interpreters of International Economic Law: Corporations and Bureaucrats in Contest over Chile's Nutrition Label

This article analyzes the everyday interpretive practices of corporations and bureaucrats that shape the meaning and force of international economic law. To understand how common practices such as public consultation submissions, corporate threat letters, and external legal assistance influence regulators' understanding of their “legally available” policy space, we study the contested introduction of a pioneering nutrition labeling regulation in Chile. The transnational food industry powerfully challenged the regulation's legality under World Trade Organization law. But Chilean health bureaucrats, in coordination with segments of the country's legally highly competent economic bureaucracy, effectively defended the legality of their proposed regulatory measure. Drawing on data from freedom-of-information requests and in-depth interviews, the article argues that the outcomes of such interpretive contests are substantially shaped by participants' knowledge of the entitlements created by international economic law and thus by the international legal expertise they have access to. This often but not always puts transnational corporations at an advantage over national regulators in the strategic interpretation of international economic law.     

国际航空旅行限制措施在“国际关注的突发公共卫生事件”情势下的适用

"国际关注的突发公共卫生事件"情势下,国际航空旅行限制措施的广泛适用反映了"传染病控制"与"国际航空旅行"关系的失衡,面临着合法性与合理性的诘问。国际航空旅行限制措施只能在《国际卫生条例(2005)》《国际民用航空公约》以及相关的双边航空运输协定等国际条约的框架内实施才具有合法性;国际航空旅行限制措施在实践中的效应使其合理性遭到质疑。为了进一步维系"传染病控制"与"国际航空旅行"二者的平衡,世界卫生组织和国际民航组织通过了一系列的"软法"性国际文件,然而,其执行力依赖于成员国的履行意愿和履行能力。我国应在维护WHO权威及PHEIC创立的制度初衷的前提下,在国际法的框架内合法合理应对和适用国际航空旅行限制措施。     

公共卫生法制的视角转换——基于控烟和肥胖防控等新兴公共卫生措施的讨论

一直以来,公共卫生以控制传染性疾病的蔓延为首要目的。相应地,公共卫生法制的工作重心和学术讨论,也主要集中于如何规范控制疾病传染过程中政府公权力的行使。而近年来全球范围内非传染性慢性疾病,例如糖尿病、肥胖和吸烟导致的各种心脏病和癌症等,逐渐取代传染性疾病,成为导致人类患病以及死亡的主要原因。为了应对客观情况的变化,公共卫生措施不断突破传统的法律边界,以继续发挥其保护和促进公众健康的作用。面对公共卫生措施的革新步伐,我们对公共卫生法制的思考也应该推陈出新。本文以控烟和肥胖防控等新兴的公共卫生措施为例,揭示传统法学理论视角的不足,并提供一个以社会正义为导向、群体为视角的法理框架。     

Institutionalization of a Human Community with a Shared Future and Principles of International Law

The doctrine of building “a human community with a shared future” (HCSF) is a Chinese diplomatic strategy in the new era moving closer to the center of global affairs. It includes enriched ideas about international law and the essential elements of institutionalization. The emergence and development of modern international law have revealed the critical importance of the ideas about international law as guidance for institutions. It is necessary and possible to institutionalize the HCSF by setting its ideas as principles of international law. The principles of international law for the HCSF are those of durable peace, universal security, common prosperity, coexistence of different civilizations, and sustainable development. The new five principles of the HCSF are integrated with the existing general principles of international law and Chinese proposals for the new era, which is not only the development of Chinese-initiated Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence but also a new contribution to the contemporary international law. It will be the new guidance to advance the profound changes of international relations unseen in a century for the common interest of mankind.     

Constructing International Crime: Lawyers,States, and the Origin of International Criminal Prosecution in the Interwar Period

This article explains the development of international crime as a legal category. I argue that states’ pursuit of political rights claims empowers international lawyers to develop new legal categories to grant states new tools to pursue their interests. At the same time, lawyers have a stake in defending the autonomy of law from politics, thus pushing for the development of legal norms and institutions that go beyond the original state intent. States’ turn to law thus begets more law, expanding the legal and institutional tools to solve international problems while simultaneously enforcing a commitment to principles of legality. To demonstrate the plausibility of the theory, the article studies the construction of the concept of an international crime in the interwar period (1919–1939). In response to the Allies’ attempt to prosecute the German Emperor, international lawyers sought the codification of international criminal law and drafted enforcement mechanisms. The interwar legal debate not only introduced international crime into the legal and political vocabulary, it also legitimized a new set of institutional responses to violations of international law, namely, international criminal prosecution.     

未来的国际法实施:从强制执行到遵守管理

20世纪以前,国际法以强制执行为主要实施方式。因缺乏强制执行手段,国际法的法律属性因而受到广泛质疑。20世纪后半期以来,国际法在规范结构和实施机制上有了较大发展。在某些领域,国际法规范开始由消极性规定转向积极性规定,而国际法的实施机制也由传统的自愿遵守和强制执行转向报告监督、帮助激励等遵守机制建设上。国际立法正在经历由权利体系的立法到救济管理的立法转变的过程。     

当代国际法的新发展与价值追求

在人类面临新挑战与国际社会出现新变化的背景下,国际法全球化与碎片化共存的现象明显,国际法的刑事化现象不断增多,国际法与国内法相互渗透、相互影响的趋势更加凸显, 国际法的调整范围不断向非传统安全领域扩展。与此同时,当代国际法所肩负的期望和使命也越来越多。发展、安全、人权等国际法价值目标已经得到了国际社会的普遍认可,国际宪政思潮已经成为国际法学界不能回避的课题,国际社会的民主和法治已成为时代要求,国际社会共同利益的理念已渗透到国际法中。