The Bite Mark Standard Reference Scale--ABFO No. 2

A scale of spatial reference for bite mark photography has been developed and evaluated. The scale incorporates both linear and circular graduations to meet the diverse needs of practicing forensic odontologists in the rectification and measurement of photographically recorded bite marks. Its unique L-shaped configuration ensures accurate scaling in both the vertical and horizontal directions and facilitates the gridding of photographs to correct for distortional errors created by oblique camera angles. This paper describes the design and constructional features of the scale and offers guidelines for its effective application to bite mark photography.     

The use of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles with English young offenders

Objectives. This study examines the psychometric properties of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) with a sample of imprisoned English young offenders. Method. The reliability and validity of the PICTS scales were investigated, and changes in scores on the PICTS scales over a 6‐month period were analysed. Results. The findings suggested that from a psychometric perspective the PICTS scales were not performing as well with young offenders as with adult prisoner samples. The indices of reliability and validity were of a moderate level. Test‐retest scores calculated over the 6 months showed little change on the PICTS scores. Conclusion. The use of the PICTS scales with young offenders is discussed with reference to previous research with adult offenders in England and North America.     

Variety and frequency scales of antisocial involvement: Which one is better?

Purpose. The aim of this study was to examine whether a scale including frequency scores of antisocial behaviour is a more sensitive and better measure of antisocial involvement than a variety scale. Methods. Data from a representative sample of 1,292 Norwegian students aged 13 and 14 years was used to compare a 17‐item variety scale with two versions of a frequency scale covering the same 17 items. Internal consistency of the scales, stability coefficients (for 1‐year and 2‐year intervals), and associations with conceptually related variables (e.g. aggression, opposition, alcohol consumption) were examined. Results. Results indicated that using a scale including the (raw) frequencies of antisocial acts committed instead of a variety scale would result in reduced internal consistency, lower stability over time, smaller group differences and weaker associations with conceptually related variables. Similarly, in regression analyses the (raw) frequency scale contributed little to the explained variance in conceptually related variables over and beyond that contributed by the variety scale. Conclusions. Although the results for a log‐transformed frequency scale were about as good as for the variety scale, both practical, methodological, and to some extent, conceptual considerations argued against replacing the variety scale with the transformed frequency scale. However, there may be some minor benefits from using an appropriately transformed frequency scale as a supplement to a variety scale, and there are also situations where inclusion of frequency scores in antisocial scales may be essential.     

Using the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles with English prisoners

Purpose. This study considers the use of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) within an English prison population. Method. The reliability and validity of the PICTS scales were investigated, and scores compared with data from an American prison population. Results. The results suggested that the PICTS was functioning in a similar way in both populations, although the English population's scores were higher. The calculation of test‐retest change scores over the duration of 6‐12‐month sentences allowed the sensitivity of PICTS scales to change over time to be analysed, an aspect of the PICTS functioning that had not previously been examined. This analysis over time suggested that evenwhen the effect of age was controlled for, changes were occurring over the duration of the sentence. Conclusion. The potential of the PICTS as a measure of change, aswell as assessment, is discussed.     

Predicting institutional adjustment with the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles composite scales: Replication and extension

Purpose . The principal aim of this study is to determine whether the Proactive (P) and Reactive (R) composite scales of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) are capable of predicting institutional adjustment in a group of medium security prison inmates. Method . The P and R composite scales were correlated with dichotomized and count measures of total, non‐aggressive and aggressive incident reports (IRs) received during a 2‐year period in a group of 219 male medium security US federal prisoners. Results . The R scale predicted dichotomized total, non‐aggressive, and aggressive IRs (point biserial correlations, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, classification analyses) and all three classes of count IRs (negative binomial regression) when age, education, race, marital status, confining offence, prior disciplinary record, program completion and time in the institution were controlled. The P scale, on the other hand, predicted dichotomized total (point biserial correlation, classification analysis) and non‐aggressive (point biserial correlation, ROC) IRs and the total disciplinary count when age, education, race, marital status, confining offence, prior disciplinary record, program completion and time in institution were accounted for in a negative binomial regression. Conclusion . The modest but consistent relationship observed between the R scale and subsequent disciplinary infractions suggests that R may well serve as one component of a larger assessment battery for identifying inmate's at risk for future disciplinary problems.     

Parental Postconflict Explanations: Implications for Children's Adjustment Outcomes

The Post Conflict Explanations (PCE) scale is a compilation of behaviors commonly seen in parent‐child postconflict communications. Following exploratory factor analysis, the PCE emerged as a four‐dimension scale with adequate subscale internal consistency and intercorrelations: Dismissive (α = 0.86), Emotion Dysregulation (α = 0.85), Constructive (α = 0.97), and Blaming (α = 0.77). The PCE and its subscales were further validated through moderate‐to‐strong associations with established scales of family conflict, emotional security, and adjustment outcomes. The identification of these postconflict explanations represents a step forward in distinguishing constructive and destructive conflict behaviors.     

Stature Estimation Formulae for Nigerians

Abstract:  In stature estimation, long limbs and the stature formula of Trotter and Gleser easily come to mind. In the recent past, a lot of workers have established formulae specific to their populations using whole length of limbs, fragmented bones, circumference of long bones, and even length of the vertebrae. We have in this work used tibia length, height of subjects, and the regression models to establish formulae specific to Nigerians. We measured height and tibia length of 200 (96 male and 104 female) adult Nigerians. The tibia length was measured from upper limit of the medial condoyle to the tip of medial malleolus using a measuring tape calibrated in meters while the height of individuals were also measured using meter scales. All measurements were made by one person, to avoid interobserver error, and repeatedly until a constant value is obtained. We obtained general formulae for males and females which compares favorably with that of Duyar and Pelin, and can be relied upon.     

Scaling Policy Preferences from Coded Political Texts

Scholars estimating policy positions from political texts typically code words or sentences and then build left‐right policy scales based on the relative frequencies of text units coded into different categories. Here we reexamine such scales and propose a theoretically and linguistically superior alternative based on the logarithm of odds‐ratios. We contrast this scale with the current approach of the Comparative Manifesto Project (CMP), showing that our proposed logit scale avoids widely acknowledged flaws in previous approaches. We validate the new scale using independent expert surveys. Using existing CMP data, we show how to estimate more distinct policy dimensions, for more years, than has been possible before, and make this dataset publicly available. Finally, we draw some conclusions about the future design of coding schemes for political texts.     

Agency and outcome expectancies for crime desistance: measuring offenders' personal beliefs about change†

Abstract

While the majority of offenders eventually desist from crime, the internal psychological mechanisms hypothesized to drive the process of desistance and offender change have not been systematically measured. This study developed scales for assessing intention to change, or offenders' beliefs regarding their perceived ability to stay crime-free (agency) and expected outcomes for crime and desistance (expectancies). Incarcerated offenders (N=142) endorsed these beliefs in a way that is consistent with theories of offender change. The structure of beliefs suggests offenders with positive expectancies for desistance and negative expectancies for crime also endorse a higher sense of personal agency to desist. Outcome expectancies for desistance were unrelated to static risk variables, suggesting these measures may be complementary to risk assessment. Overall, the scales developed for this research showed high internal consistency and evidence for concurrent and construct validity. Refining the measurement methods and assessing recidivism outcome post-release should further advance this avenue of research.     

DOES SELF‐CONTROL AFFECT SURVEY RESPONSE? APPLYING EXPLORATORY,CONFIRMATORY, AND ITEM RESPONSE THEORY ANALYSIS TO GRASMICK ET AL.'S SELF‐CONTROL SCALE*

Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) A General Theory of Crime has sparked a great deal of theoretical debate and empirical investigation. Tests of the theory have focused on measuring the core element, the latent trait of self‐control. The majority of this research has used the 24‐item scale developed by Grasmick et al. (1993), and a great deal of attention has been directed at the validity of this scale. Empirical debate revolves around the unidimensionality of the scale as established using conventional factor analytic techniques [exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)]. In this paper, we provide the first application of an item response theory (IRT) Rasch model to the validation of the Grasmick et al. scale. IRT models focus on the interaction between the human subject and survey items, and the extent to which cumulative scales fail to provide fundamental measurement. Our results suggest that although conventional factor analyses yield results similar to those previously reported, IRT analysis reveals that one's level of self‐control influences self‐report responses, a finding consistent with Hirschi and Gottfredson.     

A study of the interrelationships of several validity scales used in police selection

Validity scale data have received attention recently as providing valuable information about potential problematic police officer candidates. In this study, validity scale data from a number of selection instruments were obtained using 42 state police officer candidates. The scale used were the MMPI-2 L scale, the MMPI-2 K scale, the PAI Positive Impression Scale (PIM), the PAI Defensiveness Index (DI), the IPI Guardedness scale, the Hilson Life Adjustment Profile Lack of Candor scale, and the Inwald Survey 2 Denial of Shortcomings scale. Intercorrelations among the scales were developed and a factor analysis was performed. Factor analysis revealed two factors to be present. One is associated with the Hilson scales and is appropriately named guardedness or defensiveness. The other is associated with the MMPI-2 K scale and the PAI scales and is appropriately named social desirability. The MMPI-2 L scale loaded significantly on both factors and seemed to be the most general of the validity scales in terms of its characteristics. Implications of these analyses for police selection are discussed.     

On the measurement of low self-control in Add Health and NLSY79

Limited attention has been devoted to the dimensionality of the low self-control scales commonly constructed in two nationally representative datasets routinely used to test self-control theory (SCT) – Add Health and NLSY79. We assess the measurement properties of the low self-control scales by comparing a series of exploratory and confirmatory models that are appropriate for the categorical nature of the observed items, including unidimensional, correlated factors, second-order factor, and bifactor models. Additionally, based on these results we explore the predictive validity of the respective scales on adolescents’ delinquent behavior. The results indicate that the low self-control scales in these data have acceptable levels of internal consistency but do not represent unidimensional latent factors. Rather, scales are best represented by a second-order factor structure. When measured this way, our Add Health scale is associated with delinquency in a cross-sectional context and our NLSY79 scale predicts delinquency longitudinally. This study reveals that low self-control is best conceptualized as a multidimensional construct within these data. The results of this study provide guidance to researchers measuring low self-control in either dataset (or other data sources) and inform the larger SCT measurement literature.     

Assessing Readiness to Change among Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence: Analysis of Two Self-report Measures

Recent interest in the construct of motivation to change among male perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV) has led to development of two self-report measures of this construct: the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment for Domestic Violence (URICA-DV; Levesque et al. 2000) and the Safe at Home Inventory (SAH; Begun et al. 2003). We examined the internal structure of these instruments using confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses in a sample of 199 male IPV perpetrators waiting to begin court-mandated batterer intervention programs. Results indicated that the scales had adequate internal consistency. However, using confirmatory factor analyses, the hypothesized structural models of each instrument fit the data poorly. Subsequent models suggested by a series of exploratory factor analyses failed to improve model fit substantially for both scales. For the URICA-DV, a 3-factor model including items from the Precontemplation, Contemplation, and Action subscales fit the data adequately. No acceptable model fit could be found for the SAH. Intercorrelations among similar subscales across the two inventories suggested only a modest degree of intercorrelation (r’s = 0.16–0.52), and a factor structure more dependent on scale of origin than item latent content, suggesting that the scales assess different facets of the readiness to change construct. These results suggest that before the stages of change construct can be fully applied to the IPV area, more research and evaluation are needed on how to accurately assess abuser readiness to change.     

Eysenck's theory of crime revisited: Factors or primary scales?

Purpose. This study aims to advance the original formulation of Eysenck's theory of criminality from the factorial level to suggest that primary scales of personality best determine reports of delinquency. Method. Two self‐report studies were conducted. The first consisted of 101 students and the second used an additional 101 students. The first study used measures of Self‐Reported Delinquency (SRD) and Socialisation (Gough & Peterson, 1952) and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised Edition (EPQ‐R; H.J. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1991). The second study complemented the first study to utilize the EPQ‐R and SRD only. Results. A series of exploratory hierarchical multiple entry regressions of the factors in the first study demonstrate that high Psychoticism predicts SRD, whereas high Psychoticism and Neuroticism predict Under‐socialization. The primary scales of Disrespect for Rules, Depressed and Need for Stimulation significantly predict both criteria. The second study extends the first study through structural equation modelling to provide acceptable evidence of the concurrent validity of these primary scales with SRD. Conclusions. We propose that the significant primary scales of personality provide a clear reformulation of Eysenck's original theory of criminality as they explain the variance in delinquency and socialization in a systematic manner. Furthermore, primary scales provide a theoretical framework for behavioural interventions, as required by Blackburn (2000).     

Seclusion: the association with diagnosis,gender, length of stay and HoNOS-secure in low and medium secure inpatient mental health service

The use of seclusion is controversial. Using routinely collected data from low and medium secure service provider in the United Kingdom (n = 347) this study compared secluded and non-secluded Asperger’s syndrome, paranoid schizophrenia, organic personality disorder and emotionally unstable personality disorder patients. Analysis revealed that secluded patients were younger but did not differ on length of stay. Scores on the HoNOS-secure improved from entry to discharge on all diagnostic categories, indicating sensitivity to change. However, secluded patients with paranoid schizophrenia did not improve on the secure scale or personal and emotional well-being sub-scale factors, indicating HoNOS-secure should be used with caution in discharge decisions. Findings indicate that HoNOS-secure do not capture the factors linked to the use of seclusion in organic personality disorder and Asperger’s syndrome. HoNOS secure results outline differing needs and progress in the four diagnostic groups. Seclusion did not affect recovery as measured by HoNOS-secure clinical scale, providing evidence opposing the view that seclusion plays a major contribution to delaying recovery.     

Forensic Dental Age Estimation by Measuring Root Dentin Translucency Area Using a New Digital Technique

Dentin translucency measurement is an easy yet relatively accurate approach to postmortem age estimation. Translucency area represents a two‐dimensional change and may reflect age variations better than length. Manually measuring area is challenging and this paper proposes a new digital method using commercially available computer hardware and software. Area and length were measured on 100 tooth sections (age range, 19–82 years) of 250 μm thickness. Regression analysis revealed lower standard error of estimate and higher correlation with age for length than for area (R = 0.62 vs. 0.60). However, test of regression formulae on a control sample (n = 33, 21–85 years) showed smaller mean absolute difference (8.3 vs. 8.8 years) and greater frequency of smaller errors (73% vs. 67% age estimates ≤ ±10 years) for area than for length. These suggest that digital area measurements of root translucency may be used as an alternative to length in forensic age estimation.     

Bioinformatics Approach to Assess the Biogeographical Patterns of Soil Communities: The Utility for Soil Provenance,

Soil DNA profiling has potential as a forensic tool to establish a link between soil collected at a crime scene and soil recovered from a suspect. However, a quantitative measure is needed to investigate the spatial/temporal variability across multiple scales prior to their application in forensic science. In this study, soil DNA profiles across Miami‐Dade, FL, were generated using length heterogeneity PCR to target four taxa. The objectives of this study were to (i) assess the biogeographical patterns of soils to determine whether soil biota is spatially correlated with geographic location and (ii) evaluate five machine learning algorithms for their predictive ability to recognize biotic patterns which could accurately classify soils at different spatial scales regardless of seasonal collection. Results demonstrate that soil communities have unique patterns and are spatially autocorrelated. Bioinformatic algorithms could accurately classify soils across all scales with Random Forest significantly outperforming all other algorithms regardless of spatial level.     

Measurements of the Foramen Magnum and Mandible in Relation to Sex Using CBCT

The purpose of this study was to evaluate pre‐existing CBCT images of a large sample of adult females and males to provide data on foramen magnum and mandibular measures of sexual dimorphism for use as a reference sample in cases of establishing identity in unknown fragmentary skulls. The study group consisted of 161 adult patients. 3D images of the patients were assessed retrospectively. FM measurements were obtained from reformatted axial sections. Six mandibular measurements were taken. According to the results, the study identified four mandibular measurements as final predictors of sex which are as follows: the gonial angle (G‐angle) and ramus length (Ramus‐L), gonion–gnathion length (G–G‐L) and bigonial breadth (BG‐Br). It was found that the cross‐validated grouped overall predictive accuracy was 83.2% for FM and mandible measurements. It could correctly identify males in 77.3% and females in 87.4% of the cases. To assess sexual dimorphism, the gonial angle and ramus, gonion–gnathion lengths, and bigonial breadth of the mandible and sagittal diameter of the FM may be used on CBCT images.     

Iraq Casualties and the 2006 Senate Elections

Prior scholarship on the effects of war casualties on U.S. elections has focused on large‐scale conflicts. For this article, we examined whether or not the much‐smaller casualty totals incurred in Iraq had a similar influence on the 2006 Senate contests. We found that the change in vote share from 2000 to 2006 for Republican Senate candidates at both the state and county level was significantly and negatively related to local casualty tallies and rates. These results provide compelling evidence for the existence of a democratic brake on military adventurism, even in small‐scale wars, but one that is strongest in communities that have disproportionately shouldered a war's costs.