Accuracy and Reliability of Total Body Mass Estimation Techniques from Stature and Bi‐iliac Breadth in Non‐Hispanic U.S. Whites from the Bass Donated Skeletal Collection

This paper tests the fidelity of a recent method that used the NHANES III dataset as a proxy to estimate total body mass from stature and bi‐iliac breadth in U.S. White males and females. The bi‐iliac breadths of 230 males and 152 females identified as non‐Hispanic U.S. White from the Bass Donated Skeletal Collection were measured, and along with stature from predonor paperwork, total body mass estimates were calculated and then compared to body masses recorded on predonor paperwork. Male and female samples were subdivided by body mass index (BMI [kg/m²]) categories established by the World Health Organization. Our results suggest that total body mass estimates can be accurately assessed provided that the individual is within 18.50 ≤ BMI ≤ 29.99 for White males and 18.50 ≤ BMI ≤ 24.99 for White females. Recommendations on how to report total body mass estimates are also presented.     

Stature and Body Weight Estimation from Various Footprint Measurements Among Egyptian Population

Abstract: Analysis of footprints can reveal very important clues which can be used as a forensic evidence and help in the estimation of stature and body weight of an individual. In this work, bilateral footprints were obtained from 50 male Egyptian medical students ranging in age between 18 and 25. Nine measurements were taken on each footprint. The result revealed significant bilateral asymmetry (p < 0.001) except foot breadth at ball. The significant and positive highest correlation coefficients with stature were shown by toe‐5 length on right side (R = 0.58) and with body weight by foot breadth at ball on left side (R = ?0.52). Regression equations presented smaller standard errors of estimate (3.52–4.69) in determination of stature than those in estimation of body weight (4.05–5.28). In conclusion, this study has provided equations that help to estimate stature and body weight from footprint measurements among Egyptians.     

Stature Estimation from Various Foot Dimensions Among Slovak Population

The foot measurements are important in forensic field as they can be used as body height predictors for an individual. The morphology of human feet shows the variations and therefore the aim of this study was to find the relation between stature and foot measurements and to generate population‐specific equations. We measured the stature and bilateral foot measurements of 71 volunteers ranging in age between 18 and 27 years using standard measurements technique. The results revealed nonsignificant bilateral differences in all sex groups (p < 0.05). Sex differences were found to be significant in all foot measurements (p < 0.001). The highest significant and positive correlation coefficients with stature were observed for foot length in males (r = 0.759), in females (r = 0.722), and in the sex‐mixed group (r = 0.865). According to the nonsignificant sex effects on the relation between stature and foot dimensions, the regression equations were computed only for the pooled mixed‐sex group. Our study provides equations that can help to estimate stature from foot measurements among Slovaks.     

Estimation of Living Stature from Selected Anthropometric (Soft Tissue) Measurements: Applications for Forensic Anthropology

Abstract:  Estimation of living stature has obvious utility in the identification process. Typically, anthropologists estimate stature from the measurement of long bone length. This type of analysis is traditionally conducted on skeletonized or badly decomposed remains, so collection of the necessary bone measurements is relatively simple. As the role of anthropologists expands into medical examiner offices and mass fatality incidents, the analysis of fleshed bodies and body parts is a more common scenario. For stature estimation in these types of cases (e.g., analysis of body portions recovered from an aircraft crash site or from intentional dismemberment), the presence of soft tissue on the human remains would usually necessitate dissection to expose skeletal elements to derive metric data for stature estimation. In order to circumvent this step, this paper provides various formulae that allow for standard anthropometric (i.e., soft tissue) measurements to be used in place of skeletal measurements. Data were compiled from several anthropometric studies (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [NHANES] and U.S. Army Anthropometric Survey [ANSUR]) and numerous regression models are presented. Results are compared between skeletal measurements and the anthropometric measurements from each study. It was found that the ANSUR models are similar to the skeletal models, while the NHANES models exhibit weaker correlation coefficients and higher standard errors. Overall, this study finds that stature estimates derived from anthropometric data provide good results and remove the necessity for dissection when working with fleshed body portions.     

A Procedure for Calculating the Vertical Space Height of the Sacrum When Determining Skeletal Height for Use in the Anatomical Method of Adult Stature Estimation

Estimating stature from skeletonized remains is one of the essential parameters in the development of a biological profile. A new procedure for determining skeletal height (SKH) incorporating the vertical space height (VSH) from the anterior margin of the sacral promontory to the superior margins of the acetabulae for use in the anatomical method of stature estimation is introduced. Regression equations for stature estimation were generated from measurements of 38 American males of European ancestry from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection. The modification to the procedure results in a SKH that is highly correlated with stature (r = 0.925–0.948). Stature estimates have low standard errors of the estimate ranging from 21.79 to 25.95 mm, biases from to 0.50 to 0.94 mm, and accuracy rates from 17.71 mm to 19.45 mm. The procedure for determining the VSH, which replaces “S1 height” in traditional anatomical method models, is a key improvement to the method.     

The Effects of Body Mass on Cremation Weight*

Abstract: Cremains have become increasingly frequent in forensic contexts, while higher body mass in the general population has simultaneously made cremation a more cost‐effective mortuary practice. This study analyzed the relationship between body mass and bone mass, as reflected through cremation weight. Antemortem data were recorded for samples used in the multi‐regional data set. Each was rendered through commercial crematoriums and reweighed postincineration. Pearson’s correlation demonstrates clear association between body mass and cremation weight (r = 0.56; p < 0.0001). However, multiple linear regression revealed sex and age variables also have a significant relationship (t = 7.198; t = ?2.5, respectively). Regressed in conjunction, body mass, sex, and age contribute approximately 67% of all variation observed in cremation weight (r = 0.668). Analysis of covariance indicates significant regional variation in body and cremation weight. Explanations include bone modification resulting from increased loading stress, as well as glucose intolerance and altered metabolic pathways related to obesity.     

Antidepressants at Autopsy in Hispanic Suicidal Youth in Miami‐Dade County,Florida*

Abstract: Controversy has surrounded the use of antidepressants and suicidal behaviors in youth. This study reviewed the Medical Examiner’s Office records of 253 persons aged 24 years or younger classified as suicides in Miami‐Dade County, Florida, from 1990 to 2007. Information was collected regarding demographic information, suicidal characteristics, psychiatric and psychosocial factors, and toxicology results. Eighty‐five percent of the sample was men, and 53.4% of the subjects were Hispanic. Consistent with previous literature, the existence of antidepressants at autopsy was rare; present in only 6% (n = 15) of the victims. The occurrence of antidepressants was not significantly different between Hispanics (n = 7) and non‐Hispanics (n = 8). The incidence of antidepressants was weakly correlated with a tendency to be men and no history of psychiatric illness. The presence of antidepressants in Hispanic youth suicide victims was similar to non‐Hispanics.     

The New Face of Legal Inequality: Noncitizens and the Long‐Term Trends in Sentencing Disparities across U.S. District Courts, 1992–2009

In the wake of mass immigration from Latin America, legal scholars have shifted focus from racial to ethnic inequality under the law. A series of studies now suggest that Hispanics may be the most disadvantaged group in U.S. courts, yet this body of work has yet to fully engage the role of citizenship status. The present research examines the punishment consequences for non‐U.S. citizens sentenced in federal courts between 1992 and 2009. Drawing from work in citizenship studies and sociolegal inequality, I hypothesize that nonstate members will be punished more severely than U.S. citizens, and any trends in Hispanic ethnicity over this period will be linked to punitive changes in the treatment of noncitizens. In line with this hypothesis, results indicate a considerable punishment gap between citizens and noncitizens—larger than minority‐white disparities. Additionally, this citizenship “penalty” has increased at the incarceration stage, explaining the majority of the increase in Hispanic‐white disparity over the past two decades. As international migration increases, these findings call for greater theoretical and empirical breadth in legal inequality research beyond traditional emphases, such as race and ethnicity.     

Age-related factors in the relationship between foot measurements and living stature and body weight

The measurements of feet and footprints are especially important in forensic identification, as they have been used to predict the body height and weight of victims or suspects. It can be observed that the subjects of forensic-oriented studies are generally young adults. That is to say, researchers rarely take into consideration the body's proportional changes with age. Hence, the aim of this study is to generate equations which take age and sex into consideration, when stature and body weight are estimated from foot and footprints dimensions. With this aim in mind, we measured the stature, body weight, foot length and breadth, heel breadth, footprint length and breadth, and footprint heel breadth of 516 volunteers (253 males and 263 females) aged between 17.6 and 82.9 years using standard measurement techniques. The sample population was divided randomly into two groups. Group 1, the study group, consisted of 80% of the sample (n = 406); the remaining 20% were assigned to the cross-validation group or Group 2 (n = 110). In the first stage of the study, we produced equations for estimating stature and weight using a stepwise regression technique. Then, their reliability was tested on Group 2 members. Statistical analyses showed that the ratios of foot dimensions to stature and body weight change considerably with age and sex. Consequently, the regression equations which include these variables yielded more reliable results. Our results indicated that age and sex should be taken into consideration when predicting human body height and weight for forensic purposes.     

Stature reconstruction using fragmentary femora in South Africans of European descent

It is well documented that the intact femur has the highest correlation with stature and as such has been widely used in the derivation of regression equations for stature estimation. As intact femur is not always present for analyses in forensic cases, it has become necessary to derive regression equations for the estimation of stature from fragments of this bone. Few studies have presented regression equations for stature estimation from fragments of the femur. Because these equations are population specific, it was the aim of this study to derive similar equations for estimation of stature and maximum length of femur from measurements of the femur of South Africans of European descent. A sample of 50 male and 50 female complete skeletons were obtained from the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons. Total skeletal height for each of the skeletons was calculated using the Fully's method. Six variables were measured on each femur which included the vertical neck diameter, upper breadth of femur, epicondylar breadth, bicondylar breadth, lateral condyle length, and medial condyle length. Regression equations for the estimation of stature are presented. The range of standard error of estimate for these equations (3.71-5.31) was slightly higher than those obtained for intact long bones (2.13-3.79). It is therefore suggested that in the absence of intact femur, regression equations derived from the present study can provide a reliable estimate of adult stature.     

Age Estimation by Racemization Method in Teeth: Application of Aspartic Acid,Glutamate, and Alanine

Abstract: Here, we report on an experimental approach of simultaneous determination of various amino acids racemization (AAR) rates in teeth. We evaluated the measurements of aspartic acid (Asp), glutamate (Glu), and alanine (Ala) isolated from dentin. Asx D/L rates from total amino acid fraction, generally used for age estimation, showed high correlation (r = 0.98) with age. As Glx and Ala showed very slow racemization kinetics in TA, we performed further analysis of the acid‐soluble protein (SP) fraction. The results supported improved correlation between age and D/L rates for Glu (r = 0.84) and Ala (r = 0.85), as well as for Asp (r = 0.98). By providing further elucidation on dentin protein racemization, the technique offers a considerable opportunity to involve other amino acids in age estimation studies. As the process does not require additional separation steps, the method can be easily adapted to existing protocols.     

Evaluation of Stature Estimation from the Database for Forensic Anthropology*†

Abstract: Trotter and Gleser’s ( 1 - 3 ) stature equations, conventionally used to estimate stature, are not appropriate to use in the modern forensic context. In this study, stature is assessed with a modern (birth years after 1944) American sample (N = 242) derived from the National Institute of Justice Database for Forensic Anthropology in the United States and the Forensic Anthropology Databank. New stature formulae have been calculated using forensic stature (FSTAT) and a combined dataset of forensic, cadaver, and measured statures referred to as Any Stature (ASTAT). The new FSTAT‐based equations had an improved accuracy in Blacks with little improvement over Ousley’s ( 4 ) equations for Whites. ASTAT‐based equations performed equal to those of FSTAT equations and may be more appropriate, because they reflect both the variation in reported statures and in cadaver statures. It is essential to use not only equations based on forensic statures, but also equations based on modern samples.     

A Reliable Regression‐Based Approach for Reassociating Human Skeletal Elements of the Lower Limbs from Commingled Assemblages

Accurate sorting of commingled human remains comprises a fundamental requirement for all further anthropological analyses. The lower limb bones are particularly important for reconstructing biological profiles. This study introduces a metric technique for sorting these elements using eight standard anthropological measurements and 222 adult individuals from Greece. The bones utilized were the os coxae, the femora, the tibiae and the tali. Simple regression analyses were used to develop functions for reassociating articulating bones, providing strong correlations (r = 0.74–0.95, p‐value <0.05) and high coefficients of determination (r²=0.54–0.91). Blind tests demonstrated that combining metric and morphoscopic techniques provides an excellent sorting accuracy for the hip and knee joints (ten of ten individuals), allowing for a reliable reassociation between a sex and age indicator (os coxae) and a body size indicator (femur). Overall, these results indicate the high value of metric methods in sorting commingled human remains.     

Sexual Dimorphism in Finger Ridge Breadth Measurements: A Tool for Sex Estimation from Fingerprints

Previous research has demonstrated significant sexual dimorphism in friction ridge skin characteristics. This study uses a novel method for measuring sexual dimorphism in finger ridge breadths to evaluate its utility as a sex estimation method from an unknown fingerprint. Beginning and ending in a valley, the width of ten parallel ridges with no obstructions or minutia was measured in a sample of 250 males and females (N = 500). The results demonstrate statistically significant differences in ridge breadth between males and females (p < 0.001), with classification accuracy for each digit varying from 83.2% to 89.3%. Classification accuracy for the pooled finger samples was 83.9% for the right hand and 86.2% for the left hand, which is applicable for cases where the digit number cannot be determined. Weight, stature, and to a lesser degree body mass index also significantly correlate with ridge breadth and account for the degree of overlap between males and females.     

Prediction of stature from hand measurements

A sample of 166 normal adult males and females was taken from different colleges of Assiut representing those living in upper Egypt. Each subject has been studied for measurements of stature (S), hand length (HL) and hand breadth (HB). The data were statistically analysed in order to assess the relationship between stature and hand measurements. The correlation matrix of the study indicates close similarity of the relationship between stature and hand measurements in both sexes and in both sides. A generalized multiple regression equation has been designed to estimate stature from values of hand length and hand breadth regardless of sex or side in the form: S = 34.5 + 5.77 HL + 2.7 HB +/- 5.1. This equation may be helpful to obtain approximate stature when there is difficulty in obtaining a direct measurement or where there is a chance print of a criminal or an amputated hand or arm.     

Estimation of stature from body parts

Anthropometric technique commonly used by anthropologists and adopted by medical scientists has been employed to estimate body size for over a hundred years. With the increasing frequency of mass disasters, the identification of an isolated lower extremity and the stature of the person it belonged to has created problems for the investigation of the identity of some of the victims. In spite of a need for such a study, there is a lack of systematic studies to identify fragmented and dismembered human remains. The purpose of the paper is to analyze anthropometric relationships between dimensions of the lower extremity and body height. Analysis is based on a sample of middle class male (N=203) and female (N=108) adult Turks residing in Istanbul. The participants are mostly students and staff members of a medical school, and military personnel. Measurements taken are stature, trochanteric height, thigh length, lower leg length, leg length, and foot height, breadth, and length. Of the five variables entered into the regression analysis, all but foot breadth participate in the analysis with leg length as the first and followed by thigh and foot lengths, and finally foot height in males (R(2)). There were also individually calculated formulae for some of these measurements which provided smaller R(2)-values. Student's t-test to assess if there was any intraobserver error in measurements take by individual anthropometrist did not show such any statistically significant difference. In conclusion, the study suggested that estimation of a living height can be made possible using various dimensions of the lower extremity. One must consider differences between populations in order to apply functions as such to others.     

The Contribution of Body Mass and Volume of Distribution to the Estimated Uncertainty Associated with the Widmark Equation

The Widmark equation is used forensically for the determination of the amount of ethanol (alcohol) that may have been consumed and also to determine the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of an individual at a specific time. It is important to be able to estimate the uncertainty associated with Widmark equations. To date, there has been no detailed determination of contribution to the final uncertainty of Widmark calculations of the volume of distribution of ethanol (V_d), using anthropometric equations, or the contribution of an individual’s body mass. Using published data, published literature, and freedom of information data, we determined that the variability (%CV) associated with V_d was ~10% (Watson et al. and Forrest anthropometric equations) and that the %CV associated with estimated body mass was ~15% compared to ~3% when body mass was directly measured. These data allow an estimation of the overall uncertainty of Widmark calculations using general error propagation. The estimated total uncertainty for BAC calculations increased from ~11% (volume consumed) and ~22% (BAC) to ~19% (volume consumed) and ~37% (BAC) when using measured body mass compared to estimated body mass. These results demonstrate that forensic practitioners should be mindful of the increase in estimated uncertainty in calculated Widmark equation results when estimated body mass is used rather than measured body mass. These data further improve the knowledge around the uncertainty of results calculated with the Widmark equation.     

The Optimized Summed Scored Attributes Method for the Classification of U.S. Blacks and Whites: A Validation Study

Recently, Hefner and Ousley (2014) introduced the optimized summed scored attributes (OSSA) method that maximizes between‐group differences in U.S. black and white populations by dichotomizing six cranial morphoscopic trait scores. This study tests OSSA using an independent skeletal sample (Hamann‐Todd, n = 208) and positively identified forensic cases (Mercyhurst University, n = 28, and New York City Office of Chief Medical Examiner, n = 38). An evaluation of trait frequencies suggests shifting the heuristically selected sectioning point separating U.S. black and white populations from ≤ 3 to ≤ 4. We found a total correct classification of 73.0% (B = 50.9%, W = 89.2%) using the originally suggested sectioning point of ≤3, while the total correct classification increases to 79.2% (B = 80.2%, W = 78.5%) with a modified sectioning point of ≤4. With the increased total correct classification and reduced classification bias between ancestry groups, we suggest the modified sectioning point of ≤4 be used when assessing ancestry in forensic unknowns.     

Demographic change and forensic identification: problems in metric identification of Hispanic skeletons

The United States (U.S.) population structure is currently in a state of flux with one of the most profound changes being the increasing number of people referred to as Hispanic. In the U.S., much of the identification criteria for a biological profile are based on American Black and White individuals from anatomical collections. Using metric data from the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank (FDB), this paper will attempt to explore several issues that forensic anthropologists face when confronted with Hispanic remains. These will involve estimation of sex, height, and ancestry, the initial components of a biological profile. Discriminant function analyses indicate that American White criteria provide poor estimations of sex when applied to Hispanics and that ancestry estimation of Hispanic crania is difficult. Additionally, a new linear regression equation is presented that estimates stature for Hispanic individuals, although population specific criteria are still needed for Hispanic individuals from diverse geographical origins.