Age-related factors in the relationship between foot measurements and living stature and body weight

The measurements of feet and footprints are especially important in forensic identification, as they have been used to predict the body height and weight of victims or suspects. It can be observed that the subjects of forensic-oriented studies are generally young adults. That is to say, researchers rarely take into consideration the body's proportional changes with age. Hence, the aim of this study is to generate equations which take age and sex into consideration, when stature and body weight are estimated from foot and footprints dimensions. With this aim in mind, we measured the stature, body weight, foot length and breadth, heel breadth, footprint length and breadth, and footprint heel breadth of 516 volunteers (253 males and 263 females) aged between 17.6 and 82.9 years using standard measurement techniques. The sample population was divided randomly into two groups. Group 1, the study group, consisted of 80% of the sample (n = 406); the remaining 20% were assigned to the cross-validation group or Group 2 (n = 110). In the first stage of the study, we produced equations for estimating stature and weight using a stepwise regression technique. Then, their reliability was tested on Group 2 members. Statistical analyses showed that the ratios of foot dimensions to stature and body weight change considerably with age and sex. Consequently, the regression equations which include these variables yielded more reliable results. Our results indicated that age and sex should be taken into consideration when predicting human body height and weight for forensic purposes.     

Stature estimation from foot dimensions

Identification of an individual is the mainstay in forensic investigations. The dimensions of the foot have been used for the determination of sex, age, and stature of an individual. The present study examines the relationship between stature and foot dimensions among Gujjars, a North Indian endogamous group. Stature, foot length and foot breadth of 200 subjects comprising 100 males and 100 females were measured. Statistical analyses indicated that the bilateral variation was insignificant for all the measurements except foot breadth in males (p<0.01). Sex differences were found to be highly significant for all the measurements (p<0.01). Linear and multiple regression equations for stature estimation were calculated using the aforementioned variables and multiplication factors were computed. The correlation coefficients between stature and foot dimensions were found to be positive and statistically highly significant. The highest correlation coefficient between stature and foot length in males and foot breadth in females indicates that the foot length provides the highest reliability and accuracy in estimating stature of an unknown male and foot breadth in a female. Prediction of stature was found to be most accurate by multiple regression analysis.     

Stature and Body Weight Estimation from Various Footprint Measurements Among Egyptian Population

Abstract: Analysis of footprints can reveal very important clues which can be used as a forensic evidence and help in the estimation of stature and body weight of an individual. In this work, bilateral footprints were obtained from 50 male Egyptian medical students ranging in age between 18 and 25. Nine measurements were taken on each footprint. The result revealed significant bilateral asymmetry (p < 0.001) except foot breadth at ball. The significant and positive highest correlation coefficients with stature were shown by toe‐5 length on right side (R = 0.58) and with body weight by foot breadth at ball on left side (R = ?0.52). Regression equations presented smaller standard errors of estimate (3.52–4.69) in determination of stature than those in estimation of body weight (4.05–5.28). In conclusion, this study has provided equations that help to estimate stature and body weight from footprint measurements among Egyptians.     

Estimation of stature from foot length and foot breadth among the Rajbanshi: an indigenous population of North Bengal

In forensic anthropology, estimation of stature from feet dimensions plays a significant role in establishing personal identity. There is a scarcity of literature on the estimation of stature from foot length and foot breadth among various Indian populations, including the indigenous populations found in the northern part of the state of West Bengal, India. The Rajbanshis and the Meches are two such indigenous populations. The present study is an attempt to understand the relationship between stature and feet dimensions among Rajbanshi male and female individuals of North Bengal, India. Measurements of stature, foot length and foot breadth were recorded from 350 adult Rajbanshi and 100 adult Meche individuals (age range: 18-50 years) residing in different villages located in the Darjeeling District of West Bengal. The Technical Error of Measurements was within the accepted limits. The results of the present study indicate that female Rajbanshi individuals exhibit shorter stature and smaller feet than their male counterparts. Using ANOVA, it is determined that there was significant differences (p<0.05) in stature, foot length and foot breadth between sexes. Using paired t-test, it is further observed that bilateral variation was significant (p<0.05) within sexes with respect to foot length, but not with foot breadth (p>0.05). Stature, foot length and foot breadth are positively and significantly correlated with each other (p<0.01). The higher correlation coefficient between stature and foot length over that of stature and foot breadth points to the fact that foot length, rather than foot breadth, is more accurate in estimating stature. Sexual dimorphism is more pronounced than bilateral differences among Rajbanshi individuals. Using linear regression, it is observed that stature was strongly dependent on foot length and foot breadth. Foot breadth is strongly dependent on foot length. Prediction of stature is more accurate by using step-wise multiple regression. Age does not have a significant effect on stature estimation. The equations obtained for the Rajbanshis were fitted on the Meches to check whether the same equations could be utilized for both these indigenous communities. The equations obtained for another Indian population from the literature were also fitted and tested on the Rajbanshi. It may be concluded that the present study has provided equations to estimate stature from the feet dimensions among the Rajbanshis. It would be unwise to use the same equations for stature estimation for different Indian populations.     

Estimation of human body built in Egyptians

Identification of an unknown body and prediction of growth from specific body measurements are very important tasks in the fields of physical anthropology and forensic medicine. Height and weight are two factors among others required to establish individuality of an unidentified body. In the present work, an attempt has been made to calculate the stature and weight from percutaneous tibial length and bimalleolar breadth. The study was carried out on 1000 living Egyptian individuals comprising 500 males and 500 females; their age was between 19 and 21 years. A significant positive correlation between stature and tibial length in both sexes was recorded. The coefficient of determination showed that 56% of variation in stature was due to tibial length and bimalleolar breadth in males, while in females the coefficient of determination was 23%. On the other hand, the coefficient of determination for weight showed that 11% of variability in weight was due to tibial length and bimalleolar breadth in males, while in females it was 5%. Linear regression analysis was done for all variables in all cases. The regression equation formulae are helpful in the estimation of stature and weight of the deceased from tibial length and bimalleolar breadth when leg or foot is the only portion available for autopsy examination.     

Heel-ball (HB) index: sexual dimorphism of a new index from foot dimensions

The present research is aimed to introduce Heel-ball (HB) index from foot dimensions and determine whether this index exhibits sexual dimorphism. The study was conducted on a sample of 303 North Indian individuals (154 men, and 149 women) aged between 13 and 18 years. The stature, body weight, foot breadth at the ball (BBAL), and foot breadth at heel (BHEL) were measured. The HB index was derived by the formula BHEL × 100/BBAL. Although the mean HB index was larger in women in both feet it showed statistically significant sex differences in the right foot only. The study shows that while the foot dimensions show a positive correlation with stature and weight, the HB index is independent of the stature and weight of an individual. This novel index (HB index) may be utilized in sex determination when a part of the foot is brought for medico-legal investigation.     

Stature Estimation from Various Foot Dimensions Among Slovak Population

The foot measurements are important in forensic field as they can be used as body height predictors for an individual. The morphology of human feet shows the variations and therefore the aim of this study was to find the relation between stature and foot measurements and to generate population‐specific equations. We measured the stature and bilateral foot measurements of 71 volunteers ranging in age between 18 and 27 years using standard measurements technique. The results revealed nonsignificant bilateral differences in all sex groups (p < 0.05). Sex differences were found to be significant in all foot measurements (p < 0.001). The highest significant and positive correlation coefficients with stature were observed for foot length in males (r = 0.759), in females (r = 0.722), and in the sex‐mixed group (r = 0.865). According to the nonsignificant sex effects on the relation between stature and foot dimensions, the regression equations were computed only for the pooled mixed‐sex group. Our study provides equations that can help to estimate stature from foot measurements among Slovaks.     

Stature and sex estimate using foot and shoe dimensions

The aim of the study was to develop a formula to estimate the stature and sex of an individual using foot and shoe dimensions. To this aim the stature, right and left shoe sizes, and maximum and minimum feet length and width measurements of a target group of 569 individuals were taken. The group was composed of 294 males and 275 females. The highest correlation coefficient was found in length measurements. A notable difference between males and females existed with regard to both right and left foot and shoe length and width averages and shoe sizes (p < 0.001). Among the group, a significant correlation was found in regard to stature and right shoe length (r = 0.591, p < 0.001), with the correlation between stature and right foot length and stature and right shoe length being 0.579 (p < 0.001); as for the female group, there was a significant correlation between stature and right foot length and stature and right shoe length (r = 0.460, p < 0.001). Thus the regression formula obtained are as follows: for the right side: sex = 69.169 + 0.173 (maximum foot length) - 0.368 (maximum foot width) - 0.820 (shoe length) + 0.224 (shoe width) - 1.280 (shoe number). For the left side: sex = 69.551 + 0.276 (maximum foot length) - 0.504 (maximum foot width) - 0.739 (shoe length) + 0.344 (shoe width) - 1.360 (shoe number). In application of the formula, if sex is lower than 0.50, the shoe belongs to a male, if higher, then to female. The formula which was obtained in regression analysis in order to estimate the stature when the measurements of shoe and foot were known. For the right side, stature = 47.93 + 1.083 (maximum foot length) + 0.788 (shoe length) 1.813 (shoe number) (SEE:31.410). For the left side: stature = 47.33 + 1.139 (maximum foot length) + 0.593 (shoe length) x 1.924 (shoe number) (SEE:31.607). It was understood that foot and shoe sizes are a criteria to estimate the stature of a person that there was a strong relationship between foot and shoe length and width and that these can be used to aid estimation. It was found that in sex estimate, foot and shoe lengths are better in helping the estimate than width measurements, and that the use of shoe measurements rather than bare foot measurements are better to obtain meaningful results.     

Sex determination from hand and foot dimensions in a North Indian population

Hands and feet are often recovered from the site of natural as well as man-made disasters because of bomb blasts, train accidents, plane crashes, or mass homicides. This study is intended to establish standards for determination of sex from the dimensions of hands and feet in a North Indian population. The data for this study comprise 123 men and 123 women aged between 17 and 20 years from the "Rajput" population of Himachal Pradesh in North India. Four anthropometric measurements viz. hand length, hand breadth, foot length, and foot breadth have been taken on both sides of each subject following international anthropometric standards. The hand index (hand breadth/hand length × 100) and the foot index (foot breadth/foot length × 100) were calculated. Sectioning points and regression models are derived for the hand and foot dimensions and the derived indices. The hand and foot dimensions show a higher accuracy in sex determination by sectioning point analysis when compared to hand and foot index. Of the hand and the foot dimensions, hand breadth and foot breadth showed better accuracy in sex determination. Hand index and foot index remain poor sex discriminators in the study.     

Estimation of stature from footprint and foot outline dimensions in Gujjars of North India

Estimation of individual's stature is an important parameter in forensic examinations. Examination of footprints provides important evidence in a crime scene investigation and helps in estimation of stature of a criminal. Analysis of bare footprints is often carried out in developing countries like India where the footprints are frequently recovered at the scene of crime. The present study attempts to reconstruct stature in a sample of 2080 bilateral footprints and foot outlines collected from 1040 adult male Gujjars of North India ranging in age from 18 to 30 years. Bilateral footprints and foot outlines of each individual were measured for ten and eight measurements, respectively. The results indicate that T-2 length (length of the footprint from heel to 2nd toe) and T-5 length in footprint and T-1 length, T-4 length and breadth at ball in foot outline show statistically significant bilateral asymmetry. Significant and positive correlation coefficients exist between stature and various measurements of footprint and foot outline (P<0.001 and 0.01) except toe 1-5 angle of declination which shows insignificant correlation coefficient. The highest correlation coefficients were shown by the toe length measurements (0.82-0.87) indicating a close relationship between the stature and these measurements. Regression analysis presents smaller mean errors (2.12-3.92cm) in estimation of stature than those of division factor method (3.29-4.66cm), thus, gives better reliability of estimate than the latter. The regression equations were also checked for their accuracy by comparing the actual stature with estimated stature.     

Stature and gender estimation using foot measurements

In forensic investigation difficulties are being experienced in the stature and gender estimation of bodies dismembered in mass destruction. So as to eliminate these difficulties, new methods are being developed. The aim of this study is to develop formulae for estimation of the stature and gender through foot measurements when necessary. For this purpose, the length, width, malleol height, navicular height measurements of the right and left foot as well as stature have been taken from the 249 subjects who are attending Medical Faculty of Dokuz Eylul University and School of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation in Turkey. In males, stature and foot measurements were higher than in females, and the difference between the average measures was significant. The highest correlation was observed in the right and left foot length for female, male and study (mix-gender group) groups when stature and foot measurement relations were evaluated. The lowest correlation was observed in foot width for the right foot in all groups but, differed in left foot measurements for each group. Formulae were obtained by using multiple regression analysis for stature estimation and logistic regression analysis for gender estimation. As a consequence, whilst stature estimation formulae, depending on the gender, allow 9-10 cm errors, those that are independent on the gender help make estimation with less than 4 cm errors. Gender estimation formula can help determine the gender with 95.6% accuracy via right foot measurements, and 96.4% accuracy via left foot measurements. In population similar to our subjects, stature and gender estimation can be made by using foot measurements.     

Estimation of stature from static and dynamic footprints

The ability to estimate accurately from known parameters is a fundamental aspect of science and is evident as an emerging approach in the area of footprints and stature estimation within the field of forensic identification. There are numerous foot dimensions that have been measured in the literature to predict stature with varying degrees of confidence but few studies have tried to link the strength of estimation to anatomical landmarks. Such an approach is utilised in this study which estimates stature from the right footprints of sixty one adult male and female UK participants. Static and dynamic footprints were taken from each volunteer using the 'inkless paper system'. The prints were digitised and twelve length, width and angle measurements were chosen for the analysis. The highest correlations with stature were shown to be the heel to fourth toe print for the static group of footprints (r=0.786, p<0.01), and the heel to fifth toe print in the dynamic footprints (r=0.858, p<0.01). Collinearity statistics suggest the heel to fifth toe print length measurement is independent and not influenced by any other variables in the estimation of stature for the dynamic prints. Linear regression equations for this measurement presented the smallest standard error of estimate (SEE) and highest shared variance (R(2)) of all included variables (SEE 4.16, R(2) 0.74). Our study discusses a potential anatomical explanation as to why the lateral border of the foot and hence the impression it makes upon a hard surface, is a more stable indicator in the estimation of stature. The investigation recommends the use of Calc_A4 and Calc_A5 length measurements when estimating stature from footprint impressions.     

Body height estimation based on dimensions of sacral and coccygeal vertebrae

This study is to evaluate whether it is possible to predict living stature from sacral and coccygeal vertebral dimensions. Individual vertebral body heights, sacral height (SH), and sacrococcygeal height (SCH) were recorded from the magnetic resonance images of 42 adult males. Sum of the heights of five sacral vertebrae (sigmaS), the first four coccygeal vertebrae (sigmaC), and the total height of the sacral and the first four coccygeal vertebrae together (sigmaSC) were also recorded. Linear regression equations for stature estimation were produced using the above mentioned variables. The regression equations were constructed and tested by using jack-knife procedure. Statistical analyses indicated that the combined variables (SH, SCH, sigmaS, sigmaC, sigmaSC) were more accurate predictors of stature than the heights of individual vertebrae. The results of the study pointed out that the equations derived from sacrococcygeal dimensions perform somewhat better than ones based on foot and head variables, but worse than those based on long-bone length. As a conclusion, the dimensions of sacral and coccygeal vertebrae could be used for stature estimation when long bones are not available.     

Identification of personal height from the somatometry of the hand in Punjabi males

The present study is based on a sample of 100 normal healthy Punjabi males from Patiala, Punjab, India. Each subject has been studied for three anthropometric measurements: stature, hand length and hand breadth. The data have been subjected to statistical computation for the statistical constants like mean values, standard deviation, standard error of mean, test of significance (test of normal deviates) and regressions. The data have been studied for somatometry pertaining to height, hand length and hand breadth. Bilateral symmetry in both the measurements, hand length and hand breadth, indicate insignificant variations. Regression equations have been computed and regression lines have been drawn for the estimation of stature from somatometry of hand.     

Stature reconstruction using fragmentary femora in South Africans of European descent

It is well documented that the intact femur has the highest correlation with stature and as such has been widely used in the derivation of regression equations for stature estimation. As intact femur is not always present for analyses in forensic cases, it has become necessary to derive regression equations for the estimation of stature from fragments of this bone. Few studies have presented regression equations for stature estimation from fragments of the femur. Because these equations are population specific, it was the aim of this study to derive similar equations for estimation of stature and maximum length of femur from measurements of the femur of South Africans of European descent. A sample of 50 male and 50 female complete skeletons were obtained from the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons. Total skeletal height for each of the skeletons was calculated using the Fully's method. Six variables were measured on each femur which included the vertical neck diameter, upper breadth of femur, epicondylar breadth, bicondylar breadth, lateral condyle length, and medial condyle length. Regression equations for the estimation of stature are presented. The range of standard error of estimate for these equations (3.71-5.31) was slightly higher than those obtained for intact long bones (2.13-3.79). It is therefore suggested that in the absence of intact femur, regression equations derived from the present study can provide a reliable estimate of adult stature.     

Using tibia fragments from South Africans of European descent to estimate maximum tibia length and stature

Intact long limb bones have been used in the derivation of regression equations for stature assessment in different population groups. Since intact long bones are not always present for analyses in forensic cases, it has become necessary to derive regression equations for the estimation of stature from the fragments of these bones which are obtained in forensic and archaeological cases. Regression equations have been derived for stature estimation from fragments of the tibia. Since these equations are population specific, it was the aim of this study to derive similar equations for estimation of stature and maximum tibia length from measurements of different fragments of tibia of South Africans of European descent. Analyses were based on a sample of 50 male and 50 female complete skeletons of adult South Africans of European descent. Total skeletal height for the individual skeletons was measured using the Fully's (anatomical) method. Six variables were measured on the tibia which included the medial tibial condyle lengths and breadths, lateral tibial condyle lengths and breadths, proximal breadth and distal breadth. Univariate and multivariate regression equations were formulated for estimation of total skeletal height (and subsequent estimation of living stature) and maximum tibial length from measurements of the tibia. The standard errors of estimate for the equations were higher than those obtained for intact long bones which when present in forensic cases should be used for stature estimation. In the absence of intact long bones, the equations derived from the present study can provide a reliable estimate of skeletal height and living stature.     

Prediction of stature from hand measurements

A sample of 166 normal adult males and females was taken from different colleges of Assiut representing those living in upper Egypt. Each subject has been studied for measurements of stature (S), hand length (HL) and hand breadth (HB). The data were statistically analysed in order to assess the relationship between stature and hand measurements. The correlation matrix of the study indicates close similarity of the relationship between stature and hand measurements in both sexes and in both sides. A generalized multiple regression equation has been designed to estimate stature from values of hand length and hand breadth regardless of sex or side in the form: S = 34.5 + 5.77 HL + 2.7 HB +/- 5.1. This equation may be helpful to obtain approximate stature when there is difficulty in obtaining a direct measurement or where there is a chance print of a criminal or an amputated hand or arm.     

Stature estimation using foot dimensions via 3D scanning in Taiwanese male adults

In forensic identification, the use of foot dimensions to predict stature is a requisite. For Taiwanese male stature prediction, available information about stature estimation using foot dimensions is still lacking. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to establish Taiwanese adult male stature prediction models for various foot dimensions. A total of 2,072 male 3D foot models were collected and the subjects' ages ranged from 18 to 59 years old. Thirteen foot dimensions for each foot were utilized in this study. Bilateral differences were tested using paired t-tests. Stature predictions based on different foot dimensions were conducted using simple linear and stepwise regression methods. The results showed significant bilateral differences in the majority of the selected foot dimensions (p < 0.001). Foot length had the highest positive correlation with stature in the right and left foot. Using length-related dimensions generated better prediction accuracy (0.356 < R² < 0.533, 4.193 < SEE < 4.928), whereas the worst accuracy was observed with angle-related dimensions (0.001 < R² < 0.023; 6.072 < SEE < 6.137) when employing a single foot dimension to estimate Taiwanese male stature. Stepwise regression analysis results indicated that the coefficient of determination was improved to 0.590 and 0.593 by applying five and six foot parameters to predict stature, respectively. The findings of the present study suggest that these stature estimation equations can be applied to predict Taiwanese male stature in the forensic science field.     

Estimating height and weight from size of footprints

In the mid 1800s, Topinard proposed a simple formula for estimating a person's height: maximum foot length divided by 0.15 reveals the stature of most individuals. In addition to corroborating Topinard's findings, the author has developed formulas to serve as predictive models for estimating both height and weight when only a subject's footprint dimensions are known. The formulas are presented with a discussion of the data from which they are derived.