Credit and the rural poor: The changing policy environment in Bangladesh

This paper reviews the changing policy environment as regards credit for development in rural Bangladesh. The experiences of a range of both successful and failed formal credit interventions in rural areas are employed to reflect upon the adequacy of the currently dominant analytical approach, (Rural Financial Markets) to credit for development. The importance for the rural poor of the quality of access to credit is stressed and the political economy of access is examined. Nevertheless, the ‘Rural Financial Market’ analysis has directed recent credit policy shifts in Bangladesh, and the paper moves on to consider the implications of this for development organisations/projects seeking to work with the formal banking system. A typology of the forms of relationship between projects and the banking system is introduced and a case study of proposals for a line of credit for a production and employment generation programme is presented. This case study seeks to explore the possibilities of restructuring the access situation with respect to formal credit given the current policy environment. The paper concludes by raising some of the broader consequences of the policy changes for the rural development strategies in Bangladesh.     

Subsidizing the affluent: the case of medical education.

State and federal funds are important sources of revenue for medical schools, and a strong case can be made for public support for these institutions. Although the federal role is more widely known, the states in fact provide the bulk of direct support for medical training. The nature of aid from the two sources differs in significant ways. Most federal aid supports research or patient care, but much of state aid goes to support unconditional tuition subsidies. The primary beneficiaries of these subsidies are relatively affluent nonminority students who are beginning lucrative careers in the medical field--careers that would be lucrative even if no subsidies were provided. Nor does it appear that general subsidies are needed to attract poor and minority applicants. While targeted loans and scholarships to individuals may be justified, general tuition subsidies are not.     

Policymaking for emerging technology: the case of earthquake prediction

How does a nation formulate policy for a technology not yet quite “ready” but which may nevertheless have to be used? Earthquake prediction illustrates some of the policy issues relevant to this question. Earthquake prediction is a technology that is still in the research and development (R & D) stage. Yet predictions have been made and can be expected in the future. The question for policymakers is, are the predictions “ready enough” to use - do the risks of doing nothing in response to a scientific prediction exceed those of a false alarm? As earthquake prediction represents an emerging technology, it calls for a developing policy framework. What is the nature of “present” developing policy? How did this policy come to be? How adequate is it? What needs to be done? This article attempts to answer such questions, dealing primarily with U.S. policy, but also drawing on the experience of other nations, particularly Japan.     

农村集体非农建设用地入市流转模式探讨

目前,农村集体非农建设用地入市流转存在四种基本模式:转权让利、保权让利、规划区内外区别对待、农户主导的自发流转模式。从产权、经济发展、利益分配、社会保障等角度,对四种基本模式进行比较分析。在比较分析基础上,总结经验启示。农村非农建设用地流转制度创新宜倡导模式多元化,而规划区内外区别对待可作为重点模式进一步完善。     

Credit management for rural development: Albania,a special case

Lack of rural credit in north‐eastern Albania is one of the most important challenges facing the peasants in the area. In order to overcome the ineffective credit infrastructure prevailing after the break‐up of the communist system in 1991, the Government of Albania, with the support of the World Bank, designed a project for the alleviation of this area's rural poverty. The project, which started in 1995, is co‐financed by the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the Islamic Bank for Development and the Government of Albania. One of the project components is small scale credit for rural farmers. In the light of the experiences of the above project, this article reflects upon the future of rural credit in Albania by developing a theoretical framework which identifies the characteristics and principles to be addressed when attempting to rehabilitate the system. The framework examines the desirable preconditions, the strategic considerations, the optimum credit delivery systems and operational requirements to address the current constraints. The conjectural framework developed around some assumptions which, as the political situation was still uncertain at the time of writing, were not tested in the field. The conclusion of the study reflects the need to test these assumptions and to discuss the feasibility of using the policy framework with those empowered to implement the strategies. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Policymaking and technology transfer: The need for national thinking laboratories

The objectives of this paper are to understand what is meant by better policymaking and more efficient technology transfer, to explore what is needed for their achievement, and to suggest an operational mechanism for improving the two processes.The author introduces a few new terms: (1) Inter-context information is defined, and its importance in decisionmaking, policymaking, technology transfer and education is pointed out; (2) a distinction is drawn between incidental technology transfer—initiated by the donor—and organized technology transfer—initiated by the recipient.The author suggests that National Thinking Laboratories should be established to promote organized technology transfer and to act as catalysts to organized policymaking. Their charter should be to match needs in one context to capabilities in another context. This charter is outlined in operational terms by five general objectives listed by the author. The National Thinking Laboratories are most urgently needed, particularly in the developing countries.     

Industry effects of medical device regulation: the case of diagnostic imaging equipment.

In 1976 Congress passed legislation authorizing the regulation of all medical devices. Some observers predicted that this regulation would have adverse effects on the newly regulated industries. This paper examines the major features of the medical device regulatory program and investigates how the regulation has affected the diagnostic imaging equipment industry. The results indicate that medical device regulation has not materially affected competition or innovation within established product classes in this industry. This suggests that, by choosing methods of regulation that differentiate among levels of potential risk to consumers, the goal of consumer protection can be achieved with fewer undesirable effects on the regulated industry.     

关于文登市新型农村合作医疗的调查报告

通过封文登市新型农村合作医疗的调查发现,现在参加新型农村合作医疗的农村居民参与度低、个人缴费少,80％的资金来源于各级政府,待遇支付管“小”不管“大”,客观上造成“帮富不帮贫”,政府成为新型农村合作医疗的主角,制度的建立不能解决参加新型农村合作医疗的农村居民因病致贫和因病返贫问题。针对上述问题,本文建议加强宣传,增强农农村居民的保险意识,提高参加新型农村合作医疗的农村居民本人的缴费比例及数额,政府加大封农村居民中弱势群体的补助,取消新型农村合作医疗家庭账户,调整新型农村合作医疗支付结构,变保“小”为保“大”,加快医药卫生体制改革,有效地防止参加新型农村合作医疗的农民因病致贫和因病返贫。     

The federal government and medical technology: Crossing policy and management thresholds

This paper reviews the changes in federal government involvement in medical technology in the pastdecade, from prior reliance upon non-governmental decision-making about development, diffusion, anduse, to increasingly centralized decision-making. The case of end-stage renal disease offers contrastsbetween the past and present. The cases of Karen Ann Quinlan and CT scanning indicate the source ofpresent scepticism about benefits and costs of medical technology. Current federal involvement in medicaltechnology decision-making, through health planning, medical device regulation, and increased formalanalysis of safety, effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness, is described. Though increased federal involvementin medical technology stems from a desire to compensate for failures of the medical marketplace, theimmediate effect is to place greater decision-making reliance upon formal analysis, bureaucracy, legalprocedure, and politics. It is unclear whether the result of increased federal involvement will producebeneficial outcomes.Prepared for the Technology and Public Policy Workshop, Massachusetts Institute of Technology andAlfred P. Sloan Foundation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Februari 16–17, 1979.     

Issue transfer and symbolic legislation: a case study of the Austrian Equal Treatment Act

Abstract. Three strategies which may emerge out of politicians' concepts of rationality (problems solving, agenda management, creation of consensus) are applied to one of the main features of Austrian politics, namely the differentation of policy sectors dominated either by political parties or interest groups. The Equal Treatment Act, which had been transferred from the corporatist arena to the arena of the party system, involved the rationalities of both political parties and interest groups. This paper analyses the 'extended' process of legislation of this law (including implementation). The empirical findings are then linked to the theoretical propositions about the rationalities of the respective political actors. Finally, hypotheses about the conditions of issue transfers from the corporatist arena into the arena of the party system are suggested.     

新农村合作医疗制度建设中政府职能优化研究

新型农村合作医疗制度作为我国农村社会保障体系的中心环节,也是保证农村社会经济稳定发展的前提。在现阶段,新型农村合作医疗制度建设中出现的一些新情况、新问题迫切要求各级政府优化职能,把握自身的职能定位,明确应当承担的责任,进一步加强宣传监管工作,加大中央政府资金补贴比例,完善制度设计,切实保障新型农村合作医疗制度可持续发展。     

Asset holdings of the newly disabled: findings from the New Beneficiary Survey

About 3 out of 4 new disabled-worker beneficiaries or their spouses owned some type of financial asset in 1982, but the median value of these assets was quite small, according to data obtained by the Social Security Administration in its New Beneficiary Survey. A smaller majority reported owning their own homes, and home equity accounted for most of the reported wealth. Barely a tenth reported that they owned farms, businesses, or commercial property. Differences in age and marital status within the newly disabled population were associated with large differences in asset holdings. Married couples and older disabled workers generally were more likely to own each kind of asset, and generally reported higher values for these assets. Older married men--the largest subgroup among the disabled--are also relatively well-off, though their median asset portfolios were worth only +3,600 when home equity was excluded. Younger single men, the third largest subgroup, reported median total assets worth less than +50, however home equity was treated. The asset ownership rates and median values reported by the new disabled-worker beneficiaries are much lower for every type of asset considered than the rates and values reported by a comparable sample of new retired-worker beneficiaries.     

The deserving sick: Income-maintenance policy towards the ill and disabled

Illness and disability often result in a serious loss of income. Government response to this problem has been piecemeal, so that there is a patchwork of different programs, some state and some federal, covering particular types of medical disabilities and particular categories of people. This article briefly describes existing programs and then evaluates income-maintenance policy towards the ill and disabled using four broad criteria: clarity of objectives, adequacy of coverage, adequacy of benefits, and equity. The general findings are that extreme program fragmentation in this policy area have led to competing (and sometimes inconsistent) objectives, large gaps in population coverage, benefit levels that do not meet even minimal standards, and tremendous inequities across different programs. Recommendations for improvement include the development of a more workable definition of disability and development of a guaranteed minimum income plan in conjuction with supplementary disability insurance plans.The author would like to thank Randall Bovbjerg and James Vaupel for their thoughtful criticisms.     

Credit card debts of the poor: High and rising

In this article we report on a little‐known aspect of the consumer credit explosion: It has also happened among the poor. Focusing on credit cards, we use data from four releases of the Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF), 1983–1995, to trace the evolution of the debt position of the poor as compared to that of the population at large. The data indicate that from 1983 to 1995 the fraction of poor households with a credit card more than doubled, and the average balances held on these cards rose almost as rapidly as the balances of nonpoor households. In 1983, fewer than 1 in 30 poor households had credit card debts greater than twice their monthly incomes; by 1995, more than 1 in 8 did. There is no strong evidence at the moment that the added debt has increased the financial distress of these households. Nonetheless, because of the debt increase, poor households at the end of the 1990s are more vulnerable to an economic downturn than they were at the end of the 1980s.© 1998 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management     

Paradigmatic policy change or unintended subordination of rural autonomy: the case of source water protection in Ontario,Canada

Policy Sciences - In May 2000, E. coli originating from nearby agricultural lands contaminated the municipal water supply of Walkerton, Ontario. As a result, over two thousand people became...     

Decentralization and the implementation of rural development in Senegal: The role of rural councils

Decentralization efforts in Francophone African countries are both rarer and far less ambitious than those in Anglophone states. The decentralization programme launched by Senegal over a decade ago is an important exception. Since 1972, when the administrative reform law took effect, Senegal has been engaged in an effort to decentralize its administrative structures in order to promote rural development, to escape from the burdens of the remnants of an overly centralized colonial system and to stem the rising tide of rural opposition (malaise paysan). This new initiative, which led to the creation of local elected councils in rural communities (communautés rurales). has thus far achieved only marginal success. The 319 rural councils suffer from serious under-financing, and often from domination by administrative authorities, especially the sous-préféts. Based on an examination of the attitudes. perceptions and behaviour of a sample of rural councillors (n = 144), particularly regarding budgetary matters, it appears that the rural communities in fact provide the possibility for some popular input into local and regional planning.