Development of impulsivity and risk‐seeking: Implications for the dimensionality and stability of self‐control*

In Gottfredson and Hirschi's self‐control theory, introduced in 1990, they contend that self‐control is a unidimensional construct that develops early in childhood and remains stable throughout the life span. According to findings reported in recent research, however, these arguments are now being challenged, with scholars pointing to ways in which self‐control may be multidimensional in nature and may change beyond the period of alleged stabilization. In this study, we draw on Steinberg's dual systems model, introduced in 2008, to consider this issue further. We examine that model's two key elements of low self‐control—risk‐seeking and impulsivity—to determine whether they are empirically distinguishable from one another and have differing developmental trajectories from childhood to early adulthood. We also consider the consequences of changes in risk‐seeking and impulsivity for within‐individual changes in crime. We examine these issues with data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) for individuals from 10 to 30 years old. The results of our analyses show support for a multidimensional and dynamic conception of self‐control—from age 10 to age 30, risk‐seeking and impulsivity are empirically distinct and develop in divergent ways that are consistent with the dual systems model. Changes in risk‐seeking and impulsivity also affect changes in crime, but their effects vary with age and changes in the other element. We discuss these findings and their implications for self‐control and the development of life‐course criminology.     

SELF‐CONTROL THROUGH EMERGING ADULTHOOD: INSTABILITY,MULTIDIMENSIONALITY, AND CRIMINOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This study assesses self‐control theory's stability postulate. We advance research on self‐control stability in three ways. First, we extend the study of stability beyond high school, estimating GBTMs of self‐control from ages 10 to 25. Second, drawing on advances in developmental psychology and social neuroscience, especially the dual systems model of risk taking, we investigate whether two distinct personality traits—impulsivity and sensation seeking—often conflated in measures of self‐control, exhibit divergent developmental patterns. Finding that they do, we estimate multitrajectory models to identify latent classes of co‐occurring developmental patterns. We supplement GBTM stability analyses with hierarchical linear models and reliable variance estimates. Lastly, using fixed effects models, we explore whether the observed within‐individual changes are associated with changes in crime net of overall age trends. These ideas are tested using five waves of data from the Family and Community Health Study. Results suggest that self‐control is unstable, that distinct patterns of development exist for impulsivity and sensation seeking, and that these changes are uniquely consequential for crime. We conclude by comparing our findings with extant research and discussing the implications for self‐control theory.     

Self‐Embedding Behavior in Adults: A Report of Two Cases and a Systematic Review

Self‐embedding behavior (SEB) is the repeated insertion of sharp objects, such as needles or pins, into the soft tissues of abdomen, limbs, and other body parts. In this study, two cases of SEB were reported and the scientific worldwide literature reviewed. Thirty‐two cases of SEB were identified through systematic searches in the main bibliographic databases. Mean age was 35 years (SD = 8.97). Just over two‐thirds of the patients were female. Although the number of embedded objects could be as high as 200, major clinical and surgical complications were uncommon and mortality was null. Patients with SEB presented three major diagnoses: psychotic (25%), personality (21.9%), and factitious (28.1%) disorders. The practice of SEB largely went undetected as the patients themselves did not bring it to the attention of family members or physicians and usually denied they have engaged in SEB. A high level of suspicion is required to avoid a missed diagnosis.     

The impact of after‐school programs on the routine activities of middle‐school students: Results from a randomized,controlled trial*

Research Summary Unsupervised after‐school time for adolescents is a concern for parents and policymakers alike. Evidence linking unsupervised adolescent socializing to problem behavior outcomes heightens this concern among criminologists. Routine activities theory suggests that, when youth peer groups congregate away from adult authority, both opportunity for and motivation to engage in deviant acts increase. After‐school programs are a possible solution to unsupervised teen socializing during afternoon hours and are much in demand. However, empirical research has yet to test the relationship between the availability of after‐school programs and youth routine activities. This study presents evidence from a multisite, randomized, controlled trial of an after‐school program for middle‐school students in an urban school district. Policy Implications Youth in the treatment group engaged in less unsupervised socializing after school than youth in the control group but not as much less as would be expected if the after‐school program was providing consistent supervision to youth who would otherwise be unsupervised. Additional analyses examined why the influence of the after‐school program was not more pronounced. We found that, although program attendance was related to decreases in unsupervised socializing, the program did not attract many delinquency‐prone youths who were unsupervised, which suggests that the students most in need of the program did not benefit. Furthermore, data obtained from a mid‐year activity survey revealed that youth in the study were highly engaged in a variety of after‐school activities. The addition of the after‐school program into the mixture of available activities had little effect on the frequency with which students participated in organized activities after school.     

Relationship Between Self‐Injurious Behaviors and Levels of Aggression in Children and Adolescents Who Were Subject to Medicolegal Examination,

Aggression, which is defined as a behavior causing harm or pain, is a behavioral pattern typically expected in children and adolescents who are involved in criminal activities. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between aggression and self‐injurious behavior (SIB) in children and adolescents. The study was performed in 295 cases which were sent for medicolegal examination. The mean age of the subjects was 14.27 ± 1.05 years (age range 10–18 years). The aggression levels of the subjects were determined using the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ), which is an updated form of the Buss‐Durkee Hostility Inventory. The mean total AQ score of the subjects with and without SIB was 78.04 ± 21.0 and 62.75 ± 18.05, respectively (p < 0.01). There were significant statistical differences between the two groups with respect to their subscale scores (p < 0.01). It was concluded that the levels of aggression increased in children and adolescents who were involved in criminal activities when the SIBs increased.     

Determination of Nicotine,Cotinine and Trans‐3′‐Hydroxycotinine using LC/MS/MS in Forensic Samples of a Nicotine Fatal Case by Oral Ingestion of e‐cigarette Liquid,

Nicotine is a potent neurotoxin alkaloid and is used in e‐cigarette liquid. The LC/MS/MS method was linear over 0.01–1.0 mg/L (r² = 0.992–0.995). Limit of detection and limit of quantitation were 0.001 mg/L (S/N = 3) and 0.003 (S/N = 10). The inaccuracy and imprecision were <13.2%. The recoveries were >99.3%. A 39‐year‐old dentist was found dead lying on the floor under the couch in his dental clinic. The concentration of nicotine, cotinine, and trans‐3′‐hydroxycotinine (heart blood/peripheral blood) was analyzed as follows: 87.2/85.2 mg/L (ratio 1.0), 1.4/1.1 mg/L (ratio 1.3), and 0.012/0.0089 mg/L (ratio 1.3), respectively. The concentration of nicotine was determined to be 6734.8 mg/kg in gastric contents and 7262.0 mg/L in remaining e‐liquid. Only, high concentration of nicotine was detected in the gastric contents as well as the two pieces of evidence collected from the death scene. This fatal case resulted from oral ingestion of e‐cigarette liquid. It is estimated that at least 714 mg of nicotine was orally ingested.     

Effectiveness of a risk–need–responsivity‐based treatment program for violent and sexual offenders: Results of a retrospective,quasi‐experimental study

Purpose

Relapse prevention is an important goal in correctional settings. Although there is strong evidence for the effectiveness of certain treatment programs for juvenile offenders, those for adults lack such evidence. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a risk–need–responsivity (RNR)‐based intervention.

Methods

A quasi‐experimental, observational study design and cox regression analysis were used to compare treated violent and sexual offenders (n = 171) with untreated offenders (n = 241).

Results

Both groups were observed for an average of 7.9 years. Recidivism rates of treated offenders (11.7%, n = 20) were similar to those of control offenders (15.8%, n = 38; p = .25). When controlling for confounding variables, the hazard of recidivism in the treatment group was 5.2% lower than that in the control group. Subdividing the treatment group resulted in lower hazard ratios for offenders still in therapy when released and offenders cancelling therapy. However, none of the group differences was statistically significant.

Conclusion

Our results show that control and RNR‐based treatment groups had comparable recidivism rates with a trend towards a positive treatment effect, especially for people in outpatient treatment. However, criminal history, age at the start of follow‐up, and actuarial risk of recidivism were significantly associated with recidivism. Future research needs to apply elaborate methodological approaches to detect robust treatment effects and consider different criteria of treatment effectiveness. Furthermore, the influence of prison climate, motivational factors, intervention quality, and factors supporting the success of outpatient treatment should be considered in future studies of larger offender samples.     

Co‐parenting in a Highly Conflicted Separation/Divorce: Learning about Parents and their Experiences of Parenting Coordination,Legal, and Mental Health Interventions

Sixty high‐conflict separated/divorced co‐parents completed surveys investigating characteristics and dynamics (narcissism, empathy, conflict) that were examined in relation to co‐parenting style and parents' experiences of parenting coordination, legal, and mental health interventions. Study findings for this sample did not support common notions found in the literatures on parenting coordination and high‐conflict divorce that suggest these parents are often narcissistic or low in empathy. Findings pertaining to all high‐conflict participant experiences revealed the presence of common elements across aspects of practitioners and interventions with which they were both satisfied and dissatisfied.     

The Recognition,and Res Judicata Effect,of a United States Class Actions Judgment in England: A Rebuttal of V ivendi

United States' courts have proven willing to certify multi‐jurisdictional class actions which purport to adjudicate the claims of both American and foreign (i.e., non‐US‐domiciled) class members. This article contends, however, that a class actions judgment/settlement issued by a US court would not be recognised, and would not be given preclusive effect, in England, should absent English class members wish to re‐litigate the same grievance before an English court. Specifically, it is argued that two separate preconditions for such recognition and preclusive effect would fail, viz, a US court would usually lack the requisite ‘personal jurisdiction’ over absent English class members; and the necessary ‘identity of parties’ would be absent. The article seeks to anticipate the appropriate answer to a conundrum which is certain to arise for future English judicial consideration, whilst acknowledging the uneasy fit which currently exists between English private international law and multi‐jurisdictional class actions.     

Suicide by Self‐Administration of a Drug Mixture (Propofol,Midazolam, and Zolpidem) in an Anesthesiologist: The First Case Report in Italy

The authors report an unusual case of suicide of an anesthesiologist, in which the suicide manner and means depend upon the victim's occupation. This is the first case report published in Italy of a death involving propofol and other drugs. The anesthesiologist was found dead with an empty drip still inserted in the hand and another one near his body. Forensic and toxicological findings suggested that the cause of death was a respiratory depression due to a self‐administration of a rapidly infused lethal drug mixture. Analytical drug quantification was performed by gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry. Blood analysis revealed: zolpidem (0.86 μg/mL), propofol (0.30 μg/mL), midazolam (0.08 μg/mL), thiopental (0.03 μg/mL), and amitriptyline (0.07 μg/mL). Adipose tissue and hair analysis suggested a previous and repeated use of these drugs verifying the fact that in Italy recreational abuse of anesthetic and sedative agents in health care practitioners is becoming an increasing problem.     

The Outbreak of Fentanyl‐Related Deaths in Cook County,Illinois, Between October 2015 and December 2017: A Retrospective Study and a Comparison with Previous Data

The National Institute on Drug Abuse has observed an increase in fentanyl deaths in the United States. One epidemic related to the abuse of fentanyl happened in Cook County in 2005–2007 (350 deaths). Another outbreak of fentanyl deaths occurred in 2015–2017 in the same area. The database of the Cook County Medical Examiner's Office was searched for cases of fentanyl deaths between 2015 and 2017: 1244 deaths were found. A comparison was performed with the previous data: an increase in the number of females was observed in 2015–2017. Also, in 2005–2007, the majority of deaths occurred among African American, while in 2015–2017, Caucasians were more involved. Within our population, some drug combinations were more common in specific demographic subgroups (male/females; Caucasian/African American; and certain age groups). The epidemiology and the most significant drug associations found at the toxicology are discussed, highlighting the usefulness of the knowledge about this outbreak for public health.     

The Juvenile Justice Reform Act of 2018: Updating the Federal Approach to Youth Involved,and At‐Risk of Becoming Involved,in the Juvenile Justice System

On December 21, 2018, the Juvenile Justice Reform Act was signed into law, marking the first update in 16 years to the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974, as amended. The reforms reflect much of the knowledge that has been gained through research and science over the past decade and strengthen the Act’s core protections for youth in the juvenile justice system. The changes also expand the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s role in research, and technical assistance, and provide for additional oversight for related programs.     

Psychopathy and Female Gender: Phenotypic Expression and Comorbidity; A Study Comparing a Sample of Women Hospitalized in Italy's Maximum Security Facility with Women Who were Criminally Sentenced and Imprisoned,

Various studies have shown that women with psychopathy tend to commit crimes that are less violent than those of psychopathic men. The present study was designed to address the influence of psychopathy on the crimes committed by female offenders. A national sample of female offenders found NGRI or of diminished responsibility and at risk for criminal recidivism (OPG patients) was compared with a sample of female offenders who were convicted and imprisoned. Results of this comparison between the two groups of female offenders indicate that psychopathy is a transversal psychopathological dimension which may or may not be associated with other mental disorders. In both samples, the most commonly reported offenses among women with high PCL‐R scores were minor offenses, not particularly violent, but they appear to be related to typical psychopathic features such as superficial charm, pathological lying, and manipulation.