Differential perceptions of fear of crime among college students: The race factor

Despite the rising crime rates on U.S. university campuses, few empirical studies—either quantitative or qualitative—have examined the rate of fearfulness among college students. The present analysis supplements previous efforts by exploring racial effects on college students' feelings of fearfulness and determines the influence of individual characteristics on white and nonwhite students' fear of crime. Using cross-sectional data from a large public university in the United States, results show that nonwhite students have greater levels of fear of crime on campus than their white counterparts. Moreover, gender and perceived police effectiveness also influenced students' levels of fear of crime. The effects were true for both white and nonwhite students.     

Social disorganization theory and the college campus

Researchers and the mass media have focused increasing attention on campus crime in light of a few high-profile incidents. While rare, these incidents are important because college students are less likely to attend, spend time on, or participate in social activities on high crime campuses. The current study contributed to research on campus crime by exploring the generalizability of the updated social disorganization model to campus communities by using data collected from Peterson's Guide to Four-Year Colleges and the Uniform Crime Report for the year 2000. While social structural features of campus populations are clearly associated with rates of campus property crime, the role of social organization is less certain. These results have implications for future research and crime prevention planning on college campuses.     

Legitimacy invariance and campus crime: the impact of campus police legitimacy in different reporting contexts

ABSTRACT

This paper examines whether campus police legitimacy relevance varies across different crime contexts. 519 respondents from 31 undergraduate sections at a public university rated campus police legitimacy as well as their willingness to report a campus crime to the public safety department. Students were assigned to different crime vignettes, involving experimental manipulation of crime type: petty theft, indecent exposure, aggravated assault, and gun possession on a college campus. Results indicate general support for the procedural justice model, specifically the invariance of the influence of legitimacy on reporting. This paper argues for increased specificity in measurement of cooperation beyond general willingness to assist, or a single crime context.     

Considering the efficacy of situational crime prevention in schools

Situational crime prevention (SCP) techniques have proven successful in a variety of spheres. One setting that has increasingly relied on such tactics to control crime, namely schools, has not been subject to much evaluation, however. Much of the school crime research has focused on distal risk factors such as individual propensity and ignored more proximal factors, specifically opportunities for crime. Additionally, research that does evaluate opportunities for crime in school settings does so with limited theoretical bases and methodologies. Given the pervasiveness of SCP tactics within schools, as well as the associated costs, this is a clear void in need of research. Using a cross-sectional, nationally representative sample of schools, this study investigated the efficacy of a variety of SCP tactics with regard to violent and property crimes, net of statistical controls. The findings revealed that most SCP techniques did not have a relationship with school crime, with the exception of closing campus for lunch and the number of classroom changes. The discussion considers the robustness of these results, focusing on the methodological and substantive mechanisms that may underlie them.     

THE ROLE OF CRIME IN HOUSING UNIT RACIAL/ETHNIC TRANSITION*

Previous research frequently has observed a positive cross-sectional relationship between racial/ethnic minorities and crime and generally has posited that this relationship is entirely because of the effect of minorities on neighborhood crime rates. This study posits that at least some of this relationship might be a result of the opposite effect—neighborhood crime increases the number of racial/ethnic minorities. This study employs a unique sample (the American Housing Survey neighborhood sample) focusing on housing units nested in microneighborhoods across three waves from 1985 to 1993. This format allows one to test and find that such racial/ethnic transformation occurs because of the following effects: First, White households that perceive more crime in the neighborhood or that live in microneighborhoods with more commonly perceived crime are more likely to move out of such neighborhoods. Second, Whites are significantly less likely to move into a housing unit in a microneighborhood with more commonly perceived crime. And third, African American and Latino households are more likely to move into such units.     

On the Origins of the Violent Neighborhood: A Study of the Nature and Predictors of Crime‐Type Differentiation across Chicago Neighborhoods

Little of the literature on crime at the neighborhood level examines whether and why some crime types predominate in a given neighborhood over other types. Many macro‐level theories do make predictions about the sort of crimes that occur in some neighborhoods, although they remain largely untested. This study focuses on one of these theories, differential opportunity, and its predictions about the making of violent neighborhoods. Drawing on various data sources, this inquiry determines whether crime profiles differ across Chicago neighborhoods—that is, whether there is significant variation across neighborhoods on ratio of violent crimes to other crime types. Next, it also investigates whether the structural factors implicated in the differential opportunity perspective distinguish these neighborhoods or only predict the incidence of crime. The results reveal significant differences in the distribution of crimes across neighborhoods, as well as show that certain factors identify neighborhoods that favor violence over other crimes.     

Econometric analysis of factors influencing crime on the campus

A statistical model is presented and described to test the hypothesis that crime on university campuses bears a systematic and statistically identifiable relationship to a number of independent variables. Of the independent variables tested, the proportion of students living in dormitories and proximity to urban areas with high unemployment seem to influence the amount of crime on campus.     

Factors associated with college crimes: Implications for campus police

A considerable amount of attention is now being paid to the serious nature of campus crime. However, little information is available with regard to those factors that might be closely associated with such incidents. This paper discusses security features and demographic characteristics of a select number of colleges throughout the country. It also describes the extent to which these factors are related to campus crimes. Conclusions and recommendations for campus police officials are discussed.     

The downsizing of America: A neglected dimension of the white collar crime problem

Downsizing has emerged as one of the noteworthy economic trends of the 1990's. This paper offers a preliminary exploration of the implications of corporate downsizing (real or perceived) for white collar crime. The following are among the issues considered: Can downsizing be defined, in a meaningful sense, as a crime against stakeholders (for the benefit of shareholders)? Is downsizing an alternative to the commission of illegal acts by corporations seeking to maximize profit and minimize loss, or an adjunct to such crime? Is the prospect of downsizing likely to inspire greater or lesser willingness on the part of corporate middle managers to engage in illegal acts on behalf of the corporation? Are motivations to commit crime against corporate employers — and opportunities to do so — intensified (or diminished) as a consequence of the prospect of downsizing? Does downsizing promote higher levels of engagement in white collar crime among corporate middle managers compelled to accept white collar jobs paying far less than positions lost due to downsizing? Finally, does downsizing and its prospect contribute to a broader social and cultural environment conducive to more white collar crime?     

UP IT UP: GENDER AND THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF STREET ROBBERY*

Attempts to understand women's participation in violence have been plagued by a tendency either to overemphasize gender differences or to downplay the significance of gender. The goal of this research is to reconcile these approaches through an examination of the experiences of female and male street robbers in an urban setting. Based on in-depth interviews with active offenders, the study compares women's and men's accounts of why they commit robbery, as well as how gender organizes the commission of the crime. The research suggests that while women and men articulate similar motives for robbery, their enactment of the crime is strikingly different—a reflection, in part, of practical choices women make in the context of a gender-stratified street setting.     

全球化进程与我国社区犯罪防控体系研究

我国社区犯罪防控体系的运行一直采取以政府特别是警察治安行政为主体的社区治安管理模式。20世纪70年代末期和80年代初期,随着全球化的兴起,我国政府提出了社会治安综合治理的方针,并由此构成中国社区犯罪防控体系规划与执行的决策背景和基本的策略原则,但社区犯罪防控体系规划与执行的政治过程、行政过程、经济过程和文化过程产生的偏差以及由此引起的社区犯罪防控体系的设计、构建和运行问题并未达到预期的设计目标。解决这一问题的关键是重新审视和构建社区犯罪防控理论范式及与之相应的社区治安治理模式,建立起以社会治安综合治理方针为指导的一种新的社区犯罪防控理论范式、认知框架和与之相应的社区治安、治理制度创新体系及运行模式。     

DOES CRIME JUST MOVE AROUND THE CORNER? A CONTROLLED STUDY OF SPATIAL DISPLACEMENT AND DIFFUSION OF CRIME CONTROL BENEFITS*

Recent studies point to the potential theoretical and practical benefits of focusing police resources on crime hot spots. However, many scholars have noted that such approaches risk displacing crime or disorder to other places where programs are not in place. Although much attention has been paid to the idea of displacement, methodological problems associated with measuring it have often been overlooked. We try to fill these gaps in measurement and understanding of displacement and the related phenomenon of diffusion of crime control benefits. Our main focus is on immediate spatial displacement or diffusion of crime to areas near the targeted sites of an intervention. Do focused crime prevention efforts at places simply result in a movement of offenders to areas nearby targeted sites—“do they simply move crime around the corner”? Or, conversely, will a crime prevention effort focusing on specific places lead to improvement in areas nearby—what has come to be termed a diffusion of crime control benefits? Our data are drawn from a controlled study of displacement and diffusion in Jersey City, New Jersey. Two sites with substantial street‐level crime and disorder were targeted and carefully monitored during an experimental period. Two neighboring areas were selected as “catchment areas” from which to assess immediate spatial displacement or diffusion. Intensive police interventions were applied to each target site but not to the catchment areas. More than 6,000 20‐minute social observations were conducted in the target and catchment areas. They were supplemented by interviews and ethnographic field observations. Our findings indicate that, at least for crime markets involving drugs and prostitution, crime does not simply move around the corner. Indeed, this study supports the position that the most likely outcome of such focused crime prevention efforts is a diffusion of crime control benefits to nearby areas.     

Fear of Criminal Victimization on a College Campus: A Visual and Survey Analysis of Location and Demographic Factors

On a college campus, fear of crime may be driven by the physical characteristics of a specific location, as well as the demographics and the past experiences of respondents. Demographic and personal factors such as gender, residency, race, age, and class status can play a role in expressed fear as respondents intuitively assess the spaces for prospect, refuge, and escape. Photographs of various campus locations were used to present sample of students from a public university with various physical locations on campus. A survey was utilized as students assessed their reaction to each location in relation to fear of crime. Results were mixed in terms of personal characteristics. For example, males living on campus and full-time students were found to be less fearful than males living off campus and part-time students. Involvements in campus activities reduced fear for women, but increased it for men. The most fear producing location on campus was an enclosed walkway with almost no chance for escape, confirming that prospect, refuge, and escape are strong influences on fear (Nasar and Fisher, Sociology and Social Research, 76, 48–58, 1992).     

The Centrality of Theory in Modern Day Crime Prevention: Developments,Challenges, and Opportunities

Theory matters in crime prevention. Indeed, but this is hardly the full story. Crime prevention is oftentimes viewed as atheoretical—not grounded in the etiology of crime and offending. Reasons abound for this view, and the recent interest in an evidence-based approach to policy-making has been at the forefront. This article reviews the role that theory plays in modern day crime prevention, with a special focus on the three main crime prevention strategies: developmental, community, and situational. The review identifies a number of key challenges and opportunities for making theory more central to crime prevention. It suggests that the classification system employed in situational crime prevention has allowed for a more explicit connection between sound theory and prevention techniques, and may provide important lessons for developmental and community crime prevention.     

位于他国内水外国船舶上犯罪之管辖权

针对位于他国内水的外国船舶上的犯罪之管辖权问题,指出船旗国不能根据领土原则行使管辖权。沿海国对在本国内水的外国船舶上的犯罪拥有排他性的领土管辖权。一般而言,沿海国对于下列犯罪行使管辖权：一是沿海国国民犯罪或使该沿海国国民受到损害的犯罪;二是破坏沿海国安宁和安全的犯罪;三是违反沿海国有关检疫、入出境、海上安全、海关事务、水域污染或禁止贩毒的法律的行为或犯罪;四是其他性质严重犯罪。根据国际习惯法规则或双边领事条约的规定,对于轻微的不影响船舶以外秩序的犯罪,沿海国一般不行使管辖权,由船旗国管辖。     

THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF GUN OWNERSHIP: SELF-PROTECTION IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT*

Based on a survey of 539 residents of Cincinnati, this study assesses various explanations of gun ownership. The analysis reveals that gender and childhood socialization into a gun culture are significantly related to protective and general (or “sport”) firearm possession. In contrast, only protective gun ownership appears to be linked to crime-related factors. Conservative crime ideology and concern about the relative level of crime in one's neighborhood increase armament for defensive purposes, while informal collective security—the belief that neighbors will provide assistance against criminal victimization—reduces protective gun ownership.     

PARTICIPATION AND FREQUENCY DURING CRIMINAL CAREERS ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN*

Recent advances and debates surrounding general and developmental as well as static and dynamic theories of crime can be traced to the 1986 National Academy of Science's Report on criminal careers and the discussion it generated. A key point of contention has been regarding the interpretation of the age–crime curve. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi (1986), the decline in the age–crime curve in early adulthood reflects decreasing individual offending frequency (λ) after the peak. Blumstein et al. (1986) claimed that the decline in the aggregate age–crime curve also could be attributable to the termination of criminal careers, and the average value of l could stay constant (or increase with age) for those offenders who remain active after that peak. Using data from the Criminal Career and Life Course Study—including information on criminal convictions across 60 years of almost 5,000 persons convicted in the Netherlands—and applying a two-part growth model that explicitly distinguishes between participation and frequency, the study outlined in this article assessed the participation–frequency debate. Results suggest that the decline in the age–crime curve in early adulthood reflects both decreasing individual offending participation and frequency after the peak, that the probabilities of participation and frequency are significantly related at the individual level, and that sex and marriage influence both participation and frequency.     

Perceptions of Campus Safety Policies: Contrasting the Views of Students with Faculty and Staff

A series of recommendations to colleges and universities concerning safety, security, and incident response policies emerged in the aftermath of several high-profile tragic events on campuses. Although these appear as “common sense” solutions to the perceived risks, little is known about the level of support the normative recommendations receive from the very people they are intended to protect. This study utilizes survey data from a Midwestern university to examine the level of support expressed by students, faculty, and staff for commonly recommended campus safety policies and procedures. Multivariate models are used to compare the viability of explaining levels of support through the lenses of respondent demographics and experiences, fear of crime, and perceptions of campus public safety. Although attitudes significantly differed, students were substantively quite similar to faculty and staff. However, the factors that were hypothesized to influence support for campus safety initiatives (i.e., prior victimization, fear of crime, protective measures, perception of disorder, race, sex, and age) were not consistently predictive. This suggests that campus policymakers and state legislatures may be well served to consider the opinions of campus community members before imposing what may be unpopular policies that have questionable efficacy.     

Reporting to the police in western nations: A theoretical analysis of the effects of social context

One of the most consistent findings in empirical studies using victimization data is that the decision to report victimization to the police is determined in large part by the seriousness of the crime. The police will be notified more often of crimes that involve more serious injury or greater monetary loss. These findings, however, may be due to the fact that most studies on reporting have been conducted using victimization surveys that devote a great deal of attention to the crime event and victim characteristics and much less to the social context of that event. As a result, influences on reporting operating at the neighborhood, jurisdiction, or nation level have been neglected. The aim of this paper is to bring social context into the discourse on reporting to the police by presenting a much more inclusive model of crime reporting. In addition, the influence of four aspects of macro-level social context on reporting are tested—the perceived competence of the police, institutionalization of insurance business, norm of conformity, and level of individualism—by merging incident-level data from the International Crime Victims Survey (ICVS) for 16 Western industrialized countries with nation-level data from various sources. Hierarchical logistic modeling is used to analyze the nested data. The perceived competence of the police has a positive effect on whether property crimes are reported.