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1.
With varying degrees of enthusiasm, federal, state, and local governments had been investigating and prosecuting gangsters
since the late nineteenth century. Despite this relatively long history, the primary interpretation of the Apalachin arrests
lay in the belief that the New York State Police had uncovered proof of the existence of organized crime. This essay investigates
the reasons why there seemed to be an ongoing need to prove its existence, concluding that organized crime came to be defined
within the cultural and political agendas of Cold War America. Drawing on media accounts, government documents, archival sources,
and popular non-fiction, this essay argues that rather than the conclusive proof of the mafia, Apalachin is best viewed as
an exhibit in an ongoing argument about the existence and meaning of organized crime.
Lee Bernstein
Associate Professor of History at SUNY—New Paltz. He is the author of The Greatest Menace: Organized Crime in Cold War America. 相似文献
2.
This paper discusses issues related to measuring organized crime as they have become manifest in the Dutch contribution to
the EU Organised Crime Threat Assessment (OCTA). It intends to convey to a wider academic community certain issues of definition,
methodology and accountability, understanding the NTA process in terms of the communication of risks in a context of competitive
defining institutions.
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3.
The Apalachin meeting of recognized underworld leaders from cities across the USA was held in upstate New York on November
14, 1957. The event, well known to historians and justice system officials, has become a textbook case rarely examined for
its larger context of how American government officials learned to confront the organization and strength of the American
Mafia, later called La Cosa Nostra (LCN). From 1957 to 1967, three presidents, four attorneys general, and hundreds of federal
agents and prosecutors traveled an obstacle-filled path toward investigating, indicting, prosecuting, and convicting Apalachin
attendees and their successors. Steps were taken to challenge the power of the mob during the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations,
but they were consistently plagued by false starts, frustrations, and side steps. Each obstacle further instructed policy
makers, however, on the need for an intensive and coordinated effort grounded in common goals and interagency cooperation.
This article considers six key obstacles to the decade-long quest for a concerted federal initiative against organized crime.
It examines how the characteristics and the impact of each obstacle contributed to a meandering and slothful federal response
to the Mafia’s power. Lessons learned about how to effectively attack the mob were finally implemented in May 1966 when President
Johnson institutionalized Executive agency cooperation, making the Attorney General (AG) the focal point in the war on organized
crime. One element in this new initiative was known as the ‘Buffalo Project,’ an experiment commencing officially in January
1967 in Buffalo, New York to concentrate intelligence, investigations, and prosecutive resources working across bureaucratic
lines to pursue guilty pleas or convictions. The Project, a closely supervised operation directed by the Justice Department’s
Organized Crime and Racketeering Section (OCRS), was conceptualized as a small team of supervisory federal investigators and
experienced prosecutors who built cases against local Mafia associates and leaders to withstand the scrutiny of the federal
justice system. Assistance was also rendered by state, local, and international organizations. The Project formed a template
for the DoJ Criminal Division’s Strike Force program.
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4.
This paper describes the UK’s anti-money laundering and asset recovery laws and the aims and objectives behind the regime
since the introduction of the Proceeds of Crime Act in 2002. It then evaluates the regime in terms of the amount of criminal
assets recovered, its application against organised crime and its impact upon the price of illegal drugs.
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5.
The problem of corporate crime rates has been the subject of debate, speculation and operationalization for decades, largely
stemming from the complexity of measuring this type of crime. Examining corporate environmental crime poses challenges and creates opportunities for advancing the discussion of corporate crime rates, but criminologists
are less familiar with environmental data. In the current paper, we review the strengths and weaknesses of existing environmental
data that can be used to construct the components of an environmental crime rate. We also present a corporate environmental
crime rate derived from data on violations of the Clean Water Act and describe problems with using it in real world data.
Implications for theory, practice and future research are discussed.
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6.
The rapid economic growth in China over recent decades has been accompanied by higher levels of crime, but there have been
few studies of the Chinese experience of criminal victimization. A recent victimization survey of a representative sample
of households in Tianjin represents a major effort to fill this gap in the literature. The present paper reviews the research
based on the Tianjin survey along with other studies of crime and criminal victimization in China that have been published
since 1990. We summarize the major findings, discuss the theoretical perspectives and methodological strategies that have
been applied, identify the limitations of the research to date, and offer suggestions for future research.
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7.
Crime serves as an important catalyst for change in the socio-economic composition of communities. While such change occurs over a long period of time, crime is capitalized into local housing markets quickly and thus provides an early indicator of neighborhood transition. Using hedonic regression, we quantify this “intangible cost” of crime and extend the crime-housing price literature in several important ways. First, we disaggregate crime to the census tract level. Second, using longitudinal data, we examine changes in crime in addition to the neighborhood levels of crime. Third, we differentiate between the effects of property crime and violent crime. Fourth, we also disaggregate our sample into groups based on per capita income of the census tract. Finally, we show that it is vital to account for the measurement error that is endemic in reported crime statistics. We address this with an instrumental variable approach. Our results indicate that the average impacts of crime rates on house prices are misleading. We find that crime is capitalized at different rates for poor, middle class and wealthy neighborhoods and that violent crime imparts the greatest cost. 相似文献
8.
After decades of neglect, a growing number of scholars have turned their attention to issues of crime and criminal justice
in the rural context. Despite this improvement, rural crime research is underdeveloped theoretically, and is little informed
by critical criminological perspectives. In this article, we introduce the broad tenets of a multi-level theory that links
social and economic change to the reinforcement of rural patriarchy and male peer support, and in turn, how they are linked
to separation/divorce sexual assault. We begin by addressing a series of misconceptions about what is rural, rural homogeneity
and commonly held presumptions about the relationship of rurality, collective efficacy (and related concepts) and crime. We
conclude by recommending more focused research, both qualitative and quantitative, to uncover specific link between the rural
transformation and violence against women.
This paper was presented at the 2006 annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Los Angeles, California. Some
of the research reported here was supported by National Institute of Justice Grant 2002-WG-BX-0004 and financial assistance
provided by the College of Arts and Sciences and the Office of the Vice President for Research at Ohio University. Arguments
and findings included in this article are those of the authors and do not represent the official position of the US Department
of Justice or Ohio University. Please send all correspondence to Walter S. DeKeseredy, e-mail: walter.dekeseredy@uoit.ca.
All of the names of the women who participated in DeKeseredy and colleagues’ rural Ohio study and who are quoted have been
changed to maintain confidentiality.
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10.
The dangers stemming from organized crime have been widely acknowledged in the academic literature, government reports, as
well as in popular discourse. This article focuses on the legislative efforts to define “organized crime” undertaken in Russia
and Canada. Neither country has yet devised a satisfactory legislative definition of the varied phenomenon that is organized
crime. Definitions in both jurisdictions are problematic due to their sweeping scope and insufficient delineation of a zone
of risk for the accused as well as law enforcement officials. However, striking a proper balance between security concerns
and human and civil rights in both countries will be problematic due to constant political pressure to “get tough on crime”
as well as due to the amorphous nature of the phenomenon of organized crime.
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11.
This article examines the media reportage of white-collar crimes, organised crimes and cybercrimes, principally in the British
but also in the US media. It illustrates the ways in which different newspapers depict crime seriousness and how some defendants
adapt to these portrayals. It examines competing explanatory models and suggests that although reportage has an ideological
component, ‘news values’ and production pressures as well as ‘action triggers’ such as prosecutions or regulatory interventions
are important.
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12.
Despite the increased research attention given to rape and violence against women, little is known about rape co-occurrence,
or rape incidents that involve another crime. Although previous research has found certain incident characteristics increase
the likelihood that a victim reports her rape to police and that the offender is arrested and prosecuted, the relationship
between co-occurrence and these responses is unknown. Given this gap in the literature, the main goal of the present research
is to provide an initial understanding of rape co-occurrence and its effect on victim reporting and police clearance. To explore
these issues, this study uses two national data sources that collect the requisite incident-level information: the National
Crime Victimization Survey and the Uniform Crime Reporting Program’s National Incident-Based Reporting System. Few rapes are
found to co-occur with other crimes. When rapes do occur with other crimes, though, they are more likely than solo-occurring
rapes to involve weapons, strangers, additional injury to the victim, and multiple offenders. Rapes that co-occur also are
more likely to be reported to police and cleared by police than rapes that occur with no other crimes.
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13.
The spectacular business scandals in recent years have led both the legislative and business companies to rethink and redesign
their strategies. This article analyzes the worldwide impact of reforms in economic crime legislation emanating from the USA.
Empirical data are reported showing that the US regulations are generating a spillover effect spreading beyond its sphere
of operation. It is particularly notable that international stock-exchange-listed companies are orienting themselves increasingly
toward the legal standards of the USA.
Translated from the German by Jonathan Harrow, Bielefeld.
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14.
This study develops a causal model of the independent effect of organized crime, rule of law, and corruption on national wealth.
To measure the level of organized crime a Composite Organized Crime Index (COCI) is constructed combining data on the perceived
prevalence of organized crime, unsolved homicides, grand corruption, money-laundering and the extent of the black economy,
drawing on the World Economic Forum’s annual surveys among CEOs of larger companies, the Merchant International Group’s assessments
of investment risks in 150 countries, studies by the World Bank Institute, and official crime statistics. The findings of
the explorative analysis show that a political strategy of tolerating activities of local criminal groups in the hope of beneficial
effects on the wealth of a nation is unlikely to bring the expected results. Although some types of organized crime may bring
in significant revenues, tolerating Mafia-type activities implies letting the Trojan horse of racketeering and grand corruption
into the walls of government.
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15.
This article focuses on a research project conducted in six jurisdictions: England, The Netherlands, Germany, Australia, Venezuela,
and Brazil. These societies are very different ethnically, socially, politically, economically, historically and have wildly
different levels of crime. Their policing arrangements also differ significantly: how they are organised; how their officers
are equipped and trained; what routine operating procedures they employ; whether they are armed; and much else besides. Most
relevant for this research, they represent policing systems with wildly different levels of police shootings, Police in the
two Latin American countries represented here have a justified reputation for the frequency with which they shoot people,
whereas at the other extreme the police in England do not routinely carry firearms and rarely shoot anyone. To probe whether
these differences are reflected in the way that officers talk about the use of force, police officers in these different jurisdictions
were invited to discuss in focus groups a scenario in which police are thwarted in their attempt to arrest two youths (one
of whom is a known local criminal) by the youths driving off with the police in pursuit, and concludes with the youths crashing
their car and escaping in apparent possession of a gun, It might be expected that focus groups would prove starkly different,
and indeed they were, but not in the way that might be expected. There was little difference in affirmation of normative and
legal standards regarding the use of force. It was in how officers in different jurisdictions envisaged the circumstances
in which the scenario took place that led Latin American officers to anticipate that they would shoot the suspects, whereas
officers in the other jurisdictions had little expectation that they would open fire in the conditions as they imagined them
to be.
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16.
This article provides the background to an international project on use of force by the police that was carried out in seven
countries. Force is often considered to be the defining characteristic of policing and much research has been conducted on
the determinants, prevalence and control of the use of force, particularly in the United States. However, little work has
looked at police officers’ own views on the use of force, in particular the way in which they justify it. Using a hypothetical
encounter developed for this project, researchers in each country conducted focus groups with police officers in which they
were encouraged to talk about the use of force. The results show interesting similarities and differences across countries
and demonstrate the value of using this kind of research focus and methodology.
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17.
The article evaluates crime trends in south border American and Mexican sister cities using panel data analysis. The region
offers a unique assessment opportunity since cities are characterized by shared cultural and historical legacies, institutional
heterogeneity, and disparate crime outcomes. Higher homicide rates on the Mexican side seem to result from deficient law enforcement.
Higher population densities in Mexican cities appear to also be a factor. Cultural differences, on the other hand, have been
decreasing, and apparently do not play a substantial role. The homicide rate dynamics show opportunistic clustering of criminal
activity in Mexican cities, while no clustering is found on the American side. Crime also appears to spill from Mexican cities
into American cities. Homicide rates on both sides of the border have been falling faster than countrywide rates, leading,
in the case of American cities, and against stereotypes, to rates below the countrywide rate in 2001.
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18.
There is no scholarly consensus as to the proper functional form of the crime equation, particularly with regard to one critical,
explanatory variable—prison population. The critical questions are whether crime and prison rates must be differenced, whether
they are cointegrated, and whether they are simultaneously determined—whether crime and prison cause one another. To determine
the proper specification, different researchers have applied unit-root, cointegration, and Granger tests to very similar data
sets and obtained very different results. This has led to very different specifications and predictably different implications
for public policy. These differences are more likely to be due to the methods used, rather than to real differences among
the data sets. When the best available methods are used to identify the proper specification for a panel of U.S. states, results
are fairly clear. Crime rates and prison populations are close to unit-root; crime and prison are not cointegrated; crime
clearly affects subsequent prison populations. Thus the best specification of the crime equation must rely on differenced
data and instrumental variables. Alternative specifications run a substantial risk of spurious results.
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19.
Computer simulation models have changed the ways in which researchers are able to observe and study social phenomena such
as crime. The ability of researchers to replicate the work of others is fundamental to a cumulative science, yet this rarely
occurs in computer simulations. In this paper, we argue that, for computer simulations to be seen as a legitimate methodology
in social science, and for new knowledge to be generated, serious consideration needs to be given to how simulations could
or should be replicated. We develop the concept of systematic replication, a method for developing simulation experiments that move towards a generalisable inference that is directed, explicit, and incorporates complexity incrementally. Finally, we outline how the discrete parts of this process might be carried out in practice, using a simple simulation model.
Michael Townsley
is a lecturer in the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Griffith University. Before this he was a Senior Research
Fellow at the University College London (UCL) Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science, University College London. He trained
as a statistician, and his research has focused on crime analysis, problem-orientated policing and quantitative methods in
a criminal justice setting, all with a view to preventing crime. His current research projects include the spatial and temporal
modelling of crime and the analysis of large novel data sets.
Daniel Birks
is a Research Fellow at the UCL Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science. He has worked on a number of crime prevention research
projects in conjunction with the Home Office and several police forces in the UK. His research interests include the development
of innovative crime analysis and decision support techniques and tools, prospective models of crime, the application of simulation
techniques within criminology, the study of offender predation patterns, and the use of data mining in crime analysis. 相似文献
20.
Using epidemiological techniques for testing disease contagion, it has recently been found that in the wake of a residential
burglary, the risk to nearby homes is temporarily elevated. This paper demonstrates the ubiquity of this phenomenon by analyzing
space–time patterns of burglary in 10 areas, located in five different countries. While the precise patterns vary, for all
areas, houses within 200 m of a burgled home were at an elevated risk of burglary for a period of at least two weeks. For
three of the five countries, differences in these patterns may partly be explained by simple differences in target density.
The findings inform theories of crime concentration and offender targeting strategies, and have implications for crime forecasting
and crime reduction more generally.
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