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1.
Conflicting evidence exists on how criminal propensity moderates deterrent effects, and there is little empirical evidence
on this issue from relatively experienced offenders. This study tested how variation in criminal propensity (operationalized
as “low self-control”) moderates deterrent effects in a sample of convicted offenders in New Jersey’s Intensive Supervision
Program in 1989 and 1990. Offenders’ perceptions of the risks and consequences from violating ISP were associated with whether
they successfully completed ISP. Moreover, lower self-control did not diminish, and if anything, enhanced these deterrent
effects.
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2.
The rapid economic growth in China over recent decades has been accompanied by higher levels of crime, but there have been
few studies of the Chinese experience of criminal victimization. A recent victimization survey of a representative sample
of households in Tianjin represents a major effort to fill this gap in the literature. The present paper reviews the research
based on the Tianjin survey along with other studies of crime and criminal victimization in China that have been published
since 1990. We summarize the major findings, discuss the theoretical perspectives and methodological strategies that have
been applied, identify the limitations of the research to date, and offer suggestions for future research.
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3.
This article analyzes the investigation and prosecution of contemporary Chinese criminal organizations through the study of
one major human smuggling case: the trial of “Sister Ping.” Data were obtained from media reports, court documents, and from
interviews with parties familiar with the case. It is argued that modern human smuggling groups such as the one run by Sister
Ping are informal and decentralized organizations against which the RICO statute may be of little use.
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4.
Two studies investigated people’s perceptions of the acceptability of restorative justice procedures for handling crimes that
differ in severity. Results from Study 1 supported our hypothesis that as crimes increase in seriousness, people require a
restorative justice procedure that also has a possible retributive component (i.e. a prison sentence). Study 1 also demonstrated
that individuals assigned lower prison sentences for offenders who successfully completed a restorative procedure as compared
to a traditional court procedure. The results from Study 2 replicated those from Study 1, as well as demonstrating that offenders
who failed to successfully complete the restorative procedure received no reduction in prison sentence. These findings suggest
that in order for citizens to view a restorative justice procedure as an acceptable alternative to the traditional court system
for serious crimes, the procedure must allow for the option of some retributive measures.
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5.
This study compared two groups of child pornography offenders participating in a voluntary treatment program: men whose known
sexual offense history at the time of judicial sentencing involved the possession, receipt, or distribution of child abuse
images, but did not include any “hands-on” sexual abuse; and men convicted of similar offenses who had documented histories
of hands-on sexual offending against at least one child victim. The goal was to determine whether the former group of offenders
were “merely” collectors of child pornography at little risk for engaging in hands-on sexual offenses, or if they were contact
sex offenders whose criminal sexual behavior involving children, with the exception of Internet crimes, went undetected. Our
findings show that the Internet offenders in our sample were significantly more likely than not to have sexually abused a
child via a hands-on act. They also indicate that the offenders who abused children were likely to have offended against multiple
victims, and that the incidence of “crossover” by gender and age is high.
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6.
The existing literature seriously misinterprets the available evidence on the predictability of high rate criminal offending
and thus the potential value of statistical treatment rules that impose stiffer punishments on offenders with higher predicted
risk of recidivism. The misinterpretation results from the failure to take account of the fact that the data used in existing
risk assessment exercises come from environments characterized by informal (and sometimes formal) attempts by judges and other
actors to base penal treatments on expected recidivism. Findings of little or no predictive power for baseline covariates
may simply indicate the efficient use of the available information. We lay out the problem in detail, provide examples from
several literatures and then consider general solutions to the problem.
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7.
This article focuses on a research project conducted in six jurisdictions: England, The Netherlands, Germany, Australia, Venezuela,
and Brazil. These societies are very different ethnically, socially, politically, economically, historically and have wildly
different levels of crime. Their policing arrangements also differ significantly: how they are organised; how their officers
are equipped and trained; what routine operating procedures they employ; whether they are armed; and much else besides. Most
relevant for this research, they represent policing systems with wildly different levels of police shootings, Police in the
two Latin American countries represented here have a justified reputation for the frequency with which they shoot people,
whereas at the other extreme the police in England do not routinely carry firearms and rarely shoot anyone. To probe whether
these differences are reflected in the way that officers talk about the use of force, police officers in these different jurisdictions
were invited to discuss in focus groups a scenario in which police are thwarted in their attempt to arrest two youths (one
of whom is a known local criminal) by the youths driving off with the police in pursuit, and concludes with the youths crashing
their car and escaping in apparent possession of a gun, It might be expected that focus groups would prove starkly different,
and indeed they were, but not in the way that might be expected. There was little difference in affirmation of normative and
legal standards regarding the use of force. It was in how officers in different jurisdictions envisaged the circumstances
in which the scenario took place that led Latin American officers to anticipate that they would shoot the suspects, whereas
officers in the other jurisdictions had little expectation that they would open fire in the conditions as they imagined them
to be.
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8.
The ideal of fair and proportionate punishment was a major impetus for federal sentencing reform. Observers of the current
federal drug sentencing regime contend that the sentencing guidelines and mandatory minimums lead to the problem of “excessive
uniformity” in which offenders of widely differing culpability receive similar sentences due to the dominance of drug quantity
as a sentencing factor. This study investigates this phenomenon using the 1997 Survey of Inmates in Federal Correctional Facilities.
Controlling for relevant offense, offender, and case processing variables, the analysis finds that the quantity-driven sentencing
fails to account for important differences in offender culpability—resulting in excessively uniform sentences for offenders
with highly dissimilar roles in the offense. The main policy implication of this research is that the central, organizing
role of drug quantity in federal drug sentencing needs to be rethought. Indeed, effectively dealing with the problem of excessive
uniformity will likely require the wholesale restructuring of how federal sentences for drug offenders are determined.
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9.
I attempt to describe the several costs that criminal theory would be forced to pay by adopting the view (currently fashionable
among moral philosophers) that the intentions of the agent are irrelevant to determinations of whether his actions are permissible
(or criminal).
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10.
This article provides the background to an international project on use of force by the police that was carried out in seven
countries. Force is often considered to be the defining characteristic of policing and much research has been conducted on
the determinants, prevalence and control of the use of force, particularly in the United States. However, little work has
looked at police officers’ own views on the use of force, in particular the way in which they justify it. Using a hypothetical
encounter developed for this project, researchers in each country conducted focus groups with police officers in which they
were encouraged to talk about the use of force. The results show interesting similarities and differences across countries
and demonstrate the value of using this kind of research focus and methodology.
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11.
After decades of neglect, a growing number of scholars have turned their attention to issues of crime and criminal justice
in the rural context. Despite this improvement, rural crime research is underdeveloped theoretically, and is little informed
by critical criminological perspectives. In this article, we introduce the broad tenets of a multi-level theory that links
social and economic change to the reinforcement of rural patriarchy and male peer support, and in turn, how they are linked
to separation/divorce sexual assault. We begin by addressing a series of misconceptions about what is rural, rural homogeneity
and commonly held presumptions about the relationship of rurality, collective efficacy (and related concepts) and crime. We
conclude by recommending more focused research, both qualitative and quantitative, to uncover specific link between the rural
transformation and violence against women.
This paper was presented at the 2006 annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Los Angeles, California. Some
of the research reported here was supported by National Institute of Justice Grant 2002-WG-BX-0004 and financial assistance
provided by the College of Arts and Sciences and the Office of the Vice President for Research at Ohio University. Arguments
and findings included in this article are those of the authors and do not represent the official position of the US Department
of Justice or Ohio University. Please send all correspondence to Walter S. DeKeseredy, e-mail: walter.dekeseredy@uoit.ca.
All of the names of the women who participated in DeKeseredy and colleagues’ rural Ohio study and who are quoted have been
changed to maintain confidentiality.
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12.
There is widespread agreement in criminology that some crimes are more severe than others, but precise definitions of crime
severity and straightforward methods for measuring it have been elusive. Public perceptions of crime severity and economic
estimates of crime costs to society or willingness to pay offer a variety of metrics for the public’s perceptions of severity,
but they may not accurately describe severity as reflected in offender preferences. The behavior of offenders is critical
for understanding developmental progressions in criminal careers, as one may assume that typically more severe offenses are
not undertaken until less severe crimes have been committed. In the present paper we propose an alternative metric of crime
severity, drawing on findings from developmental criminology that indicate that more severe crimes occur after less severe
crimes in the criminal life course, and a method for estimating crime severity that uses the generalized Bradley–Terry model
of multiple paired comparisons. We demonstrate this approach on two samples of youthful offenders: the National Youth Survey
and the RAND Adolescent Outcomes Project. The results suggest that sample-specific estimates of crime severity can be derived,
that these estimates provide insight into the developmental progression of crime, and that they correspond well to crime severity
rankings produced by the public.
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13.
Derived from comparative approaches in both qualitative and quantitative research, the current study describes a simple exploratory
technique for the multivariate analysis of categorical data. This technique is referred to as the conjunctive analysis of
case configurations. After describing the logic and underlying assumptions of this conjunctive method, it is applied and illustrated
in the study of the federal sentencing of drug offenders. The relative value of this conjunctive approach for purposes of
exploratory data analysis and its overall utility as a method for confirmatory research are also discussed.
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14.
This commentary on Michael Cahill’s Grading Arson argues that Cahill’s analysis inevitably leads to three possible conclusions. First, arson does not belong in criminal codes.
Second, crimes of manner do not belong in criminal codes. And, third, the special part needs serious reconsideration. Although
Cahill is reticent to draw any of these conclusions, this commentary urges Cahill to embrace all three.
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15.
Seeking a grounding in Buchanan (Cost and choice: an inquiry in economic theory, 1969) subjective theory of opportunity cost,
this paper sets out to fix a notional locus of the law in order to determine the cost of law enforcement. The paper also explores
the impact of unlawful activities on the economy and analyses the evolution of individual criminal activities in collective
criminal organizations such as the mafia.
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16.
There is growing interest in crime prevention through early youth interventions; yet, the standard United States response
to the crime problem, particularly among juveniles, has been to increase the use and resource allocation allotted toward punishment
and incapacitation and away from prevention and treatment. At the same time, longitudinal studies of delinquency and crime
have repeatedly documented a strong link between past and future behavior and have identified a small subset of offenders
who commit a large share of criminal offenses. These findings suggest that if these offenders can be identified early and
correctly and provided with prevention and treatment resources early in the life course, their criminal activity may be curtailed.
While researchers have studied these offenders in great detail, little attention has been paid to the costs they exert on
society. This paper provides estimates of the cost of crime imposed on society by high risk youth. Our approach follows and
builds upon the early framework and basic methodology developed by Cohen (J Quant Criminol 14: 5–33, 1998), by using new estimates of the costs of individual crimes, ones that are more comprehensive and that significantly increased
the monetary cost per crime. We also use new estimates on the underlying offending rate for high risk juvenile offenders.
We estimate the present value of saving a 14-year-old high risk juvenile from a life of crime to range from $2.6 to $5.3 million.
Similarly, saving a high risk youth at birth would save society between $2.6 and $4.4 million.
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17.
Illegality does not necessarily breed violence. The relationship between illicit markets and violence depends on institutions
of protection. When state-sponsored protection rackets form, illicit markets can be peaceful. Conversely, the breakdown of
state-sponsored protection rackets, which may result from well-meaning policy reforms intended to improve law enforcement,
can lead to violence. The cases of drug trafficking in contemporary Mexico and Burma show how a focus on the emergence and
breakdown of state-sponsored protection rackets helps explain variation in levels of violence both within and across illicit
markets.
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18.
Different judicial alternative sanctions and measures exist on the three levels of the criminal justice system. These alternative
sanctions and measures can be applied to a specific target group, namely drug users. The current study is a qualitative assessment
of the application and execution of alternative measures and sanctions for drug users, based on semi-structured face-to-face
interviews in which stakeholders (magistrates, judicial assistants and social workers) and drug users were asked for their
attitudes towards these sanctions and the factors that influence them in their convictions and beliefs. In conclusion we can
state that the interviews have increased the insight in the attitudes of decision makers, social assistants, judicial assistants
and drug users towards alternative sanctioning. From the interviews we learn that there are strong similarities between the
three profiles, which provide for a strong basis for the continued functioning of alternative sanctioning.
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19.
A small number of offenders are responsible for a disproportionate share of total crime. Policy makers have been seeking to
reduce crime more efficiently by targeting corrections at these frequent offenders. Thus far, both macro- and micro-level
research have yielded mixed results regarding the effects of these kinds of selective policies. The current study uses data
from the Netherlands Criminal Career and Life-course Study to estimate the incapacitative effects of alternative selective
prison policies. Using the rolling cohorts method, implementations of various penal scenarios differing in selection rate,
sentence disparity and selective accuracy are simulated. Results show that it is hard for selective policies to yield a positive
societal result: costs of imprisonment typically exceed benefits gained from crimes prevented.
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20.
Questions and answers about incapacitation abound in all discussions about criminal justice policy. They are among the most
pressing of all research issues, yet estimates about the incapacitation effect on crime vary considerably, and most are based
on very old and incomplete estimates of the longitudinal pattern of criminal careers. This paper provides an overview of the
incapacitation issue, highlights information on recent estimates of criminal careers that are useful to the incapacitation
model, and outlines an ambitious research agenda for continued and expanded work on incapacitation and crime that centers
on developing better estimates of the characteristics of criminal careers and their relevance to policy choices.
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