The ethics of managed care: a dose of realism

This article examines the ethics of medical practice under managed care from a pragmatic perspective that gives physicians more useful guidance than existing ethical statements. The article begins by stating the authors' starting premises and framework for constructing a realistic set of ethical principles: namely, that bedside rationing in some form is permissible; that medical ethics derive from physicians' role as healers; that actual agreements usually trump hypothetical ones; that ethical statements are primarily aspirational, not regulatory; and that preserving patient trust is the primary objective. The authors then articulate the following concrete ethical guides: financial incentives should influence physicians to maximize the health of the group of patients under their care; physicians should not enter into incentive arrangements that they would be embarrassed to describe accurately to their patients or that are not in common use in the market; physicians should treat each patient impartially, without regard to source of payment, and in a manner consistent with the physician's own treatment style; if physicians depart from this ideal, they must tell their patients honestly; and it is desirable, although not mandatory, to differentiate medical treatment recommendations from insurance coverage decisions by clearly assigning authority over these different roles and by having physicians to advocate for recommended treatment that is not covered.     

The complexities of managed care: operating a voluntary system

The implementation of state-sponsored voluntary case management programs for public assistance recipients creates provider and recipient recruiting problems that are unique to the state's economic environment, its political climate, its historic relationship with providers, its program goals, and its implementation strategies. This implementation study discusses the factors that influenced the operationalization of the Massachusetts managed care program for AFDC families. The issues of provider recruitment and recipient enrollment are examined in relation to the formal program goals of cost containment and access. The operational and bureaucratic problems the state Medicaid staff has experienced in maintaining the program evokes questions of who should administer the programs, who the best types of providers are in light of program goals, and how recipients can be enrolled in a voluntary program.     

阴性解剖中的心脏性猝死

综述了近年来有关心脏性猝死的分子生物学和电生理学的研究进展,着重讨论了心震荡、先天性长QT间期综合征和Brugada综合征,可能诱发致死性心律失常,发生心脏性猝死。这些功能性病症死亡常可导致病理解剖时无明显客观器质性病理改变。提示法医和病理工作者在遇到阴性解剖猝死时,应注意了解猝死的诱因、继往病史和家族病史,注意排除可能存在的这些病症。     

Postmortem non-invasive virtual autopsy: death by hanging in a car

A body was found behind a car with a noose tied around its neck, the other end of the rope tied to a tree. Apparently the man committed suicide by driving away with the noose tied around his neck and was dragged out of the car through the open hatchback. postmortem multislice-computed tomography (MSCT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) indicated that the cause of death was cerebral hypoxia due to classic strangulation by hanging, and not due to a brainstem lesion because of a hang-man fracture as would be expected in such a dynamic situation. Furthermore, the MRI displayed intramuscular haemorrhage, bleeding into the clavicular insertions of the sternocleidomastoid muscles and subcutaneous neck tissue. We conclude that MSCT and MRI are useful instruments with an increased value compared with 2D radiographs to augment the external findings of bodies when an autopsy is refused. But further postmortem research and comparing validation is needed.     

The stages of managed care regulation: developing better rules

The managed care industry is at a crossroads. Belief in the ability of market forces alone to create an environment fostering quality health care at lower cost is eroding. Regulators across the country are confronted with a growing consumer backlash against managed care. As a result, states have passed managed care reform legislation at unprecedented rates. In doing so, states are confronted with a patchwork of federal intervention and preemption. We examine the stages of these recent state and federal developments and evaluate them in terms of the traditional objectives of a reasonably functioning health care system: quality care, access, and cost containment.     

Uncertainty of determining cause of death in a medicolegal material without autopsy. An autopsy study

In constrast to other studies, this investigation was made on cases of medicolegal deaths that would not normally be autopsied. 223 females and 322 males, whose deaths were found to be natural before as well as after autopsy, were studied. The cause of death was estimated by external medicolegal examination, and after autopsy.In 79 females and 109 males, i.e. 35% and 34% respectively, estimated cause of death was found to be different after the autopsy. This was mostly because ischaemic heart disease as a cause of death was overestimated at the external medicolegal examination. No constant relationship between differing causes of death and age group could be demonstrated. Underdiagnoses and overdiagnoses tended to outweigh each other. Pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, cor pulmonale and aortic stenosis were clearly underestimated before autopsy. In addition, a variety of diseases that were not even mentioned at the medicolegal examination was found (subarachnoid haemorrhage, uraemia, perforated and bleeding gastric ulcers, tuberculosis).The same unreliability in the estimated cause of death therefore exists among cases not normally autopsied as found in retrospective studies of cases where autopsy is performed under all circumstances at the request of the police.False information will thus be given to the mortality statistics among the approximately 5000 cases of medicolegal deaths not autopsied in Denmark per year, most of these being natural deaths. Besides, contagious and inherited diseases could be overlooked, relatives given false information and the value of scientific studies in causes of death diminished.The conclusion is that autopsy is still essential to ensure continuous control and correction of causes of death.     

State Medicaid managed care enrollment: understanding the political calculus that drives Medicaid managed care reforms

The objective of this article is to understand the political motivations underlying Medicaid managed care reforms by examining the determinants of enrollment of beneficiaries in managed care plans in the fifty states. To highlight the role of the model variables, including measures of the political environment, public interest, and special interests, a distinction is made between capitated and fee-for-service managed care enrollment. The results show that cost containment within the context of the Medicaid program is perceived as strongly favored by voters. Accordingly, the relative cost and tax price of providing Medicaid services are important factors in states' decision to enroll Medicaid beneficiaries in managed care plans, particularly capitated ones. The results also indicate a surprisingly significant influence by labor unions that generally oppose managed care enrollment for fears of lost jobs. The recipient population and provider groups also play an important role in shaping the Medicaid managed care landscape. The influence of variables measuring states' ability and willingness to pay and median voter preferences suggest that, within the context of Medicaid managed care enrollment, the public's interests are being served; however, the results also point toward inequities within the program and implications concerning financing arrangements between states and the federal government.     

New autopsy signs in violent death

In forensic medicine subtle observation has often resulted in the detection of single findings which are of great significance regarding the mechanisms of development of the incidence or its vitality. Thus, empiricism is an accepted method to gain new insights. Nevertheless the value and the significance of empirically gained insights have to be proven either by retrospective or prospective analysis of important case series or by experiments. It is often a long and difficult way from observation to proof. But without a detailed and evidence-based scientific argumentation the level of empirical methods could not be exceeded.     

医疗纠纷中死亡争议案件尸检价值的评估

目的探讨尸体检验对死亡争议事件的医疗鉴定、赔偿处理上的价值,以妥善处理医疗纠纷中医患双方的矛盾。方法对温州市4个市、区、县2002—2004年的182例死亡争议事件进行回顾性分析,就尸检率,临床、尸检诊断,尸检对医疗鉴定及争议事件处理上的作用,及其在不同级别医院的具体情况等进行了统计处理。结果182例其中尸检46例,尸检率25.27%。二级以上医疗机构死亡争议事件112例,尸检率19.64%。临床死因诊断与尸检死因诊断不符合率37%,以循环系统、呼吸系统为多。46例尸检中,医疗鉴定32例(69.5%),经济赔偿29例(63%)。未尸检136例,医疗鉴定20例(14.7%),经济赔偿121例(88.9%),两者差异显著,有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论尸体检验对死亡争议案件的医疗鉴定与处理具有重要意义,尤其在死因鉴定方面具有不可替代性。     

医疗纠纷中死亡争议案件尸检价值的评估

目的探讨尸体检验对死亡争议事件的医疗鉴定、赔偿处理上的价值,以妥善处理医疗纠纷中医患双方的矛盾.方法对温州市4个市、区、县2002-2004年的182例死亡争议事件进行回顾性分析,就尸检率,临床、尸检诊断,尸检对医疗鉴定及争议事件处理上的作用,及其在不同级别医院的具体情况等进行了统计处理.结果182例其中尸检46例,尸检率25.27%.二级以上医疗机构死亡争议事件112例,尸检率19.64%.临床死因诊断与尸检死因诊断不符合率37%,以循环系统、呼吸系统为多.46例尸检中,医疗鉴定32例（69.5%）,经济赔偿29例（63%）.未尸检136例,医疗鉴定20例（14.7%）,经济赔偿121例（88.9%）,两者差异显著,有统计学意义（P＜0.05）.结论尸体检验对死亡争议案件的医疗鉴定与处理具有重要意义,尤其在死因鉴定方面具有不可替代性.     

Stressful events as a trigger of sudden death: a study of 43 medico-legal autopsy cases

The reports relating emotional stress to sudden death are largely anecdotal. In addition to experimental and electrophysiological studies, an opportunity for a better understanding of possible stress-related sudden death (SSD) may be provided by medico-legal autopsies. The goal of our autopsy study was to analyze cardiovascular pathologic findings in cases of SSD and if possible identify mechanisms by which the stressful event (SE) could be the cause. Forty three cases were studied (29 males and 14 females). In all cases, the SE and the death were witnessed. The age range was 22 to 90 years in males (mean, 52) and 30 to 92 years in females (mean, 64). Death occurred in all cases without premonitory symptoms. In 20 cases, death occurred during the SE and in the other 23 cases occurred within 2 h of the event. SE included fear, 15 cases; altercation, 21 cases; sexual activity, 3 cases; police questioning or arrest, 4 cases. According to police reports, in 40 cases (90%), the victims had no previous clinical history of cardiovascular disease. At autopsy, the heart weight in males ranged from 255 to 1000 g with a mean of 517 g and in females the range was 250–700 g with a mean of 417 g. In only 3 cases, gross and microscopic examination of the heart was normal. In 2 of the remaining 40 cases the subjects died of subarachnoid hemorrhage. In 38 cases, a cardiac cause of death was found as follows: coronary heart disease, 27 cases; cardiomyopathy, 6 cases; aortic valvular stenosis, 2 cases and right ventricular dysplasia, 3 cases. A coronary artery thrombosis was found in 8 cases of sudden coronary death. Post myocardial infarction fibrosis was present in 25 cases (92%) of sudden coronary death. In conclusion, it appears from our autopsy study that SSD occurs primarily in those individuals with severe heart disease, especially coronary heart disease.