Sacred Deviance and AIDS in a North American Buddhist Community*

This essay presents a community AIDS narrative concerning an alleged case of intentional HIV transmission between spiritual teacher and student. Analysis focuses on the relation between legal and popular representation of criminal intent, the denial of AIDS risk, and the neighborhood of belief. In this framework, alternative application of traditional criminal law and HIV-specific penal statutes are considered as both prosecution strategies and opportunities for public spectacle.     

Criminalizing Health-Related Behaviors Dangerous to Others? Disease Transmission, Transmission-Facilitation, and the Importance of Trust

Statutes criminalizing behavior that risks transmission of HIV/AIDS exemplify use of the criminal law against individuals who are victims of infectious disease. These statutes, despite their frequency, are misguided in terms of the goals of the criminal law and the public health aim of reducing overall burdens of disease, for at least three important reasons. First, they identify individual offenders for punishment, a paradigm that is misplaced in the most typical contexts of transmission of infectious disease and even for HIV/AIDS, despite claims of AIDS exceptionalism. Second, although there are examples of individuals who transmit infectious disease in a manner that fits the criminal law paradigm of identification of individual offenders for deterrence or retribution, these examples are limited and can be accommodated by existing criminal laws not devoted specifically to infectious disease. Third, and most importantly, the current criminal laws regarding HIV/AIDS, like many other criminal laws applied to infectious disease transmission, have been misguided in focusing on punishment of the diseased individual as a wrongful transmitter. Instead of individual offenders, activities that enhance the scale of disease transmission—behaviors that might be characterized as ‘transmission facilitation’—are a more appropriate target for the criminal law. Examples are trafficking in human beings (including sex trafficking, organ trafficking, and labor trafficking), suppression of information about the emergence of infection in circumstances in which there is a legally established obligation to disclose, and intentional or reckless activities to discourage disease treatment or prevention. Difficulties remain with justifications for criminalizing even these behaviors, however, most importantly the need for trust in reducing overall burdens of disease, problems in identifying individual responsible offenders, and potential misalignment between static criminal law and the changing nature of infectious disease.     

HIV/AIDS and legal developments in Germany

Case law has helped to define the legal environment for people infected and affected by HIV/AIDS in Germany. This article describes court decisions in three areas that may be of interest to Canadian readers: criminal law, confidentiality, and the use of illegal drugs to control pain. It also describes the situation of refugees with HIV/AIDS.     

中国经济刑法法益:认知、反思与建构

当前基于秩序、利益、自由等表述的经济刑法法益学说在认知进路上存在问题,无法形成本体和功能自洽的法益观。应当承认集体法益的独立性,立足法益二元论对经济刑法法益进行本体重塑与功能展开。它勾连宪法,是保障在经济领域中实现个人自由的外部条件的统一体,也是经济秩序市场经济规范保护的客体。法益不是刑法独有的保护目标,仅根据法益标准难以有效区分刑事不法与行政不法。经济刑法的犯罪化应坚持保护适格的集体法益,同时更加注重合比例原则和明确性原则的补充与限制。经本体重塑的经济刑法法益兼具体系超越与体系内在功能,有助于在反思当下中国经济刑法立法与司法的基础上,重构经济刑法的立法理念与犯罪化标准,厘清经济犯罪的类型与解释原理。     

法定犯中行政前置性要件的法理基础与制度构造

行政前置性要件作为刑法分则个罪中的限制性要件,强调行政处理优先性,包含着以刑罚处罚确保行政执法效果的制度期待,是刑法谦抑性的新表达。在法定犯日趋增多的时代背景下,刑法修正中的犯罪化不可避免,单一强调犯罪化或非犯罪化均存在较大副作用,在个罪中设置行政前置性要件,重视法益恢复在阻却犯罪成立中的积极价值,有利于追寻犯罪化与非犯罪化的最佳平衡点。行政前置性要件的法理基础在于部分犯罪存在法益侵害待定状态。立法者在增设法定犯时,若认为该犯罪存在法益侵害待定状态,并且不直接涉及人身法益,当优先考虑设置行政前置性要件。     

经济自由与刑法理性:经济刑法的范围界定

刑法对任何行为的惩罚都要有正当化根据,要坚持犯罪化的基本原则。当今世界不少国家刑法都呈现泛化倾向,我国经济刑法也明显存在调整范围过度的现象。传统刑法理论认为经济犯罪的客体是国家经济秩序,这种理解难以符合市场经济本质和前行方向,容易引起经济刑法处罚范围的不当扩大。经济犯罪是市场主体滥用经济自由而导致对其他平等主体或社会、国家公共利益的伤害(危险),对其法益要从实质上解释,形式上只是违反特定经济制度或秩序,不产生具体法益侵害的行为,应由经济行政法调整,不宜纳入刑法范围。当前我国经济犯罪的司法认定要重视刑法解释方法的运用,以限缩经济刑法的处罚范围。     

反思刑法谦抑主义

谦抑性考察已成为当下评判刑事立法和刑事司法的基础性分析工具。与此相应,我国晚近以来的历次刑法修正案所反映的犯罪化进程被不少学者反复诟病为"不谦抑"。刑法谦抑主义虽然彰显了古典刑法保障个人权利的理念,但是谦抑性并非一个价值中立、超越时空、至高无上的刑法原则。直面现代社会刑法法益保护与人权保障的内在紧张关系,仅从单一化的谦抑主义维度去评判刑法发展的得失是偏颇的。谦抑性应该还原为罪刑法定原则之下用来说明和贯彻罪刑法定原则的子原则。反思刑法谦抑主义,并非要放弃或终结对刑法谦抑性的追求,而是主张在肯定谦抑理念的同时对谦抑性在立法和司法、设罪和配刑等不同场域作不同的把握。刑法的发展需要在法益保护与人权保障中寻求一种张弛有度的动态平衡,而绝非单向度的谦抑主义。     

预防性犯罪化立法:路径、功能、弊端与完善

预防性犯罪化立法作为我国近年来刑法立法的重要实践,在预防犯罪方面发挥了极其重要的作用。我国预防性犯罪化立法主要有预备行为犯罪化、持有行为犯罪化、煽动行为犯罪化、抽象危险犯这四种实践方式,具有抵御日益积聚的刑事风险、实现刑罚双面预防目的、贯彻宽严相济刑事政策的重要刑法功能。然而,预防性犯罪化立法又存在着引发刑法工具主义滥觞、冲击谦抑主义刑法精神的弊端。随着风险社会的到来,预防性犯罪化立法还将呈现扩张趋势,探索预防性犯罪化立法的科学有效路径势在必行。就未来的预防性犯罪化立法而言,必须以宪法为引领,以刑法的基本原则为遵循,并采取多轨制的刑法立法模式。     

犯罪化范围的法理分析与展开

在犯罪化的合法性范围问题上,出现理论争议主要是由于对刑法所设立的禁止性义务来源的认识不同,其争论焦点在于刑法是否或应在多大程度上强制推行某种意义上的社会共同体道德。法律道德主义与法律自由主义在理论的实际应用上因其不确定性而往往难以统摄形形色色的社会现象。效益评价理论会因其伦理根基的不足而无法对自身理论进行有效的修正。实际上,犯罪化的范围是由刑法的价值本位决定的,应是界于个人本位与社会本位之间的一种动态定位,因而犯罪化的合法性范围的实然确定是立法者在协调社会本位与个人本位的基础上,依据某一阶段刑事政策的需要而对越轨行为做出的动态反应。     

Processes of Criminalization in Domestic and International Law: Considering Sexual Violence

This article explores some conceptual issues regarding criminalization at the domestic and international levels. It attempts to explain what it means to say that a particular kind of conduct has been criminalized, and considers how the processes of criminalization differ in domestic and international law. In unpacking these issues, the article takes the examples of rape and sex trafficking in domestic and international legal systems, explores whether these offenses are criminalized more broadly in international criminal law as compared to domestic criminal law, and briefly outlines possible explanations for this disparity.     

The UNGASS Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS: a review of legislation in six Southern African countries

This article reviews legislation of six Southern African countries to determine what progress has been made after the UNGASS Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS, particularly with regard to paragraph 58 on human rights and paragraph 69 on rights in the workplace. The article notes the complexities introduced by the coexistence of customary laws and practices and codified law. It describes certain features of specific codified and customized laws. It concludes that, with the possible exception of South Africa, the countries under review have not responded to the challenges the HIV/AIDS epidemic have confronted their legal systems with. They have resorted in the first instance to criminal law, and have allowed discriminatory customary laws and practices, which propel the epidemic, to continue to operate.     

过失危险犯之存在性与可存在性思考

决定某类过错行为 ,包括过失危险行为在内可以犯罪化的基础不是主观过错 ,而是危险行为本身所具有的社会危害性。过失危险犯只能存在于危害公共安全法益的犯罪中 ,由于公共安全法益本身的特殊性 ,这类法益价值的外延已经突破其本身的价值而及于它的安全性 ,即威胁它的安全就是侵犯它的价值 ,而使过失危险行为具有直接侵犯公共安全法益价值的本质 ,进而具备犯罪化的报应基础。设立过失危险犯与刑法谦抑原则不冲突 ,反而有利于刑法诱导和刑法忠诚。     

《违法行为教育矫治法》法案理应搁置

目前把多层次和多向度的人身强制做法塞入一个法案之中,不如终止《违法行为教育矫治法》的草拟,通过司法层面的犯罪化将已故意实施严重危害社会行为且有再犯之虞的人纳入刑法调整;借《禁毒法》改变原有强制隔离戒毒格局,促使劳动教养退出现制;将工读教育和精神病人的强制治疗交由教育法和医疗法调整;尽可能考虑运用综合抑制手段而不宜匆匆确认对特定出狱人的收容处分。     

风俗犯罪的处罚根据初论——以风俗犯罪正当化的考察为视角

立法者在刑法中创制风俗犯罪主要是基于维护社会生活中善良风俗的考量,但是刑法的目的是保护法益,单纯侵害社会生活中善良风俗的行为是否具有法益侵害性和应否发动刑法对其予以规制是需要进一步探讨的问题,这有赖于考察风俗犯罪的正当化。唯有侵害社会生活中善良风俗的行为犯罪化与风俗犯罪正当化的内涵相符,相关风俗犯罪的创制才是合理的,这是阐明风俗犯罪处罚根据的核心所在。风俗犯罪的正当化不仅与自由保障理念和法益保护理论具有重要关联,还与伤害原则、从属性原则以及罪刑均衡原则密不可分。     

激励、效能、谦抑：二元化犯罪模式的法理审视

犯罪模式的选择过程及其难点，首先就是如何妥善处理好犯罪化与非犯罪化两者之间的关系，寻找它们之间的最佳平衡点。二元化犯罪模式在中国并非一个简单的刑法问题，而是具有独特价值的法理问题。对此“问题”认知过程中产生的法理分析既影响到有关犯罪标准的制定，又反过来形成了犯罪标准的理想模型。因此应从激励、效能、谦抑等方面全方位审视这一犯罪模式，实现该犯罪模式从危机到契机的转化，并警惕该犯罪模式带来的羊群效应。     

Before the Law: Criminalization,Accusation and Justice

This review essay critically engages three socio-legal books directed to the changing bases of criminalization; namely, Lacey (In search of criminal responsibility: ideas, interests, and institutions, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2017); Farmer (Making the modern criminal law: criminalization and civil order, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016); and Norrie, Justice and the slaughter bench: essays on law’s broken dialectic, Routledge, New York, 2016). The texts explore how modern (largely English) institutions of criminal law proscribe, assign responsibility and appear through contradictory socio-political ‘constellations’. They variously reference criminal law’s expanding punitiveness as it: embraces revived character-based ways of attributing responsibility via ideas of risk; drifts away from a social function of creating civil order; and, works through a ‘broken dialectic’ that fails to recognize its ethico-political auspices. The ensuing ‘overcriminalization’ is referenced variously, but this review questions a tendency to work off legal lexicons, with consequent limitations placed on the scope of social analysis. Referring to Roman and Cape colonial forms of criminalization, this review highlights processes of accusation that call subjects to account as criminals, thereby signalling an initiating socio-political layer upon which unequal forms of overcriminalization rest.     

论我国土地刑法规范的缺陷及其完善

现行土地刑法规范存在立法目的以保护人类利益为中心,刑事法网不严密,以及个罪犯罪主体设定不合理、入罪门槛过高、司法认定困难等缺陷,不利于土地资源的保护,应予调整、完善。刑法应承认环境权益的独立性,并将其视为与人类利益并重的法益加以保护;还应对现有罪名的犯罪构成作相关修正。建议增设违规出让国有土地使用权罪、非法征收不动产罪、破坏土地质量罪等3个新罪名,以弥补刑法保护的漏洞。     

Toward Rational Criminal HIV Exposure Laws

This article examines criminal HIV exposure statues that address undisclosed exposure through consensual sexual activity. Twenty-seven U.S. states have adopted some form of HIV exposure statute. Thirteen of these statutes specifically address exposure through sexual activity, while another eleven statutes could be applied to exposure through sexual activity, while another eleven statutes could be applied to exposure through consensual sexual interactions. Although the penalties for breach of these laws are often severe, the risk of actual harm posed by the many of the behaviors prescribed is minimal and in some cases virtually nonexistent. After an overview of the various types of U.S. criminal HIV exposure statutes and discussion of the risk of HIV transmission through the various sexual activities addressed in the laws, the authors highlight the tenuous relationship between proscribed activities and actual risk of virus transmission. The authors address this limitation in the law by offering a framework for the evaluation and construction of HIV exposure statutes that considers not only the intent of the HIV-positive actor but also the risk that his or her conduct poses to others.     

The Criminal Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights in China: Recent Developments and Implications

This article systematically introduces and analyzes a number of aspects of the criminal enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPR) in China, focusing on recent trends and developments. China has been under tremendous pressure from the US to expand the criminalization of its IP infringement. The article first summarizes the substantive criminal law regarding IP offenses in China and describes the main enforcement agencies and judicial organs responsible for the investigation and processing of IP crimes. Analysis of the substantive criminal IP law and enforcement practices shows a steady pattern of rapid criminalization, not only on the books but also in action. Newly promulgated judicial interpretations and notices substantially expand criminalization of IP infringements. In addition, the enforcement rates of IP and related crimes have been rising consistently and rapidly. There have also been numerous joint meetings, information exchanges, issuance of provisions, collaborative “strike-hard” enforcement campaigns and other major efforts initiated by the police, the prosecutors, and administrative agencies to facilitate agency cooperation and strengthen the criminal enforcement of IPR. However, accompanying this rapid criminalization of IP infringement control are serious problems rooted in the Chinese criminal judicial system, including local protectionism, the lack of respect for procedural justice as well as the protection of defendants’ basic rights, and inadequate training, professional incompetence, misconduct, or corruption.