Canada ordered to implement WTO ruling against "stockpiling" of generic drugs

In the last issue, we reported on a mixed World Trade Organization (WTO) ruling regarding Canada's patent laws, based on a complaint by the member states of the European Communities (joined by the United States). In March 2000, a WTO Panel accepted the provision in Canada's Patent Act that creates an "early working exception" to patent rights--in other words, that allows a third party to use a patented invention during the term of patent protection, as long as the use is for obtaining regulatory approval of an equivalent product to be sold once the patent expires. This was an important victory from the perspective of allowing earlier access to generic versions of patented drugs.     

WTO体制内国内法的可诉性问题

在一般国际法理论与实践中,国内法本身可以单独构成国际争端解决程序的诉因。WTO体制内国内法可诉的法律依据是GATT1994第23条、DSU第3.8条以及《WTO协定》第16.4条。在WTO争端解决实践中,专家组和上诉机构的裁决呈现出一个重要的趋势:在美国“301条款”案前,遵循GATT1947时期专家组所确立的“裁量性立法与强制性立法之区分”的习惯性做法;在美国“301条款”案后,不再严格遵循这一习惯性做法。WTO体制内国内法之可诉性问题目前尚没有一个统一、明确的答案。     

Interpretación de normas internacionales de distintos ordenamientos bajo el acuerdo de obstáculos técnicos al comercio de la OMC

This study gives evidence through the International Comparative Law, two rules that come from standardization bodies of different nature, such as standards of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and ASTM International (ASTM International), which are recognized in the international trade and domestic trade, but it plays erratically, being in some significant cases and not in others mandatory. Thus constituting real technical barriers to trade through discriminatory criteria, contrary to the provisions and spirit of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), of which Mexico, the U.S. and Canada are also part.     

世界贸易组织补贴规则研究

世界贸易组织法律体系中关于补贴问题主要规定在三个法律文件之中,即《补贴与反补贴措施协议》(以下简称《补贴协议》)、《农业协议》和《服务贸易总协定》。《补贴协议》只处理影响货物贸易的补贴,《农业协议》对农产品的补贴在《补贴协议》的大框架内有一些特殊规定,《服务贸易总协定》则另外规定了关于服务贸易的补贴。由于发达国家与发展中国家的经济实力的巨大悬殊以及它们对农业补贴的不同政策,从而导致了在货物贸易的补贴规则方面,两类国家之间存在着尖锐的利益不平衡,发展中国家必须为实现其与发达国家实质上的平等而继续奋斗。     

IS ARTICLE 5.7 OF THE SPS AGREEMENT AN APPLICATION OF THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE?

The “Precautionary principle” is regarded as the new buzz phrase in the discussion of risk regulation relating to the areas of environment and health. Article 5.7 of the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measure (SPS Agreement) uses a similar approach to the protection of human, animal and plant life, and health. It is important to pay close attention to some of the relationships concerning the precautionary principle and Article 5.7. Firstly, when a member decides to take sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures, they usually act from the perspective of prudence and precaution. In addition, the precautionary principle finds similar expression in Article 5.7. However, the precautionary principle has not been explicitly written in the SPS Agreement as a ground for justifying the SPS measures in situations that are inconsistent with the obligations set out in the Agreement. The case law shows that the Panel is very careful about the use of the language of precaution. The Appellate Body is reluctant to allow the precautionary principle to override the specific obligations in the Agreement. Whether Article 5.7 can be regarded as an application of the precautionary principle needs to be examined. Under the current discourse, however, this article finds that the precautionary principle cannot by any means be used as an interpretative tool for Article 5.7. Reliance on the precautionary principle to trigger Article 5.7 is supposed to be unsuccessful. As in situations where taking SPS measures threats the environment and health become irreversible, more attention should be paid to practical issues to ensure the necessity and efficacy of the measures.     

The GATT‐WTO system: Environmental friend or Foe?

Abstract

The GATT‐WTO system has been attacked for being at best indifferent to the environment and at worst hostile to it. However, rather than being an environmental foe, the GATT‐WTO system is environmentally‐friendly in many respects. Several World Trade Organization agreements — the Agreement on Agriculture, the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures and the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures — not only permit but encourage WTO member‐countries to implement national programs and laws to protect the environment free from WTO interference. Multilateral initiatives through organizations such as the WTO, as opposed to unilateral bullying, are the surest way of securing robust legal protections for the environment.     

从国际组织功能看WTO与WCO的关系

WTO和WCO是当今世界重要的国际经济组织,相互之间在关税和海关措施方面等功能上重叠,存在着国际组织法上的功能合作机制。这一机制集中体现WTO将两个重要协定《海关估价协定》和《原产地规则协定》交由WCO管理,而WCO成立相应的海关估价技术委员会和原产地规则技术委员会予以技术支持。此外WTO和WCO之间还在知识产权海关保护以及贸易便利化等领域进行功能合作。以海关估价为例,WCO甚至无视精心打造的《布鲁塞尔海关估价公约》,而全力经营WTO移交来的《海关估价协定》,其背景是WTO和WCO共同推进的贸易便利化大势。     

Legal Problems of Making Regional Trade Agreements with Non-WTO-Member States

In pursuing regional economic integration with non-WTO-membereconomies, a WTO member must be aware that WTO compliance isunder question. An exchange of preferential treatment betweenthe WTO-member party and non-WTO-member parties gives rise toa violation by the WTO member of the MFN treatment obligationof the WTO Agreement. In the case of integration in the servicesector, consistency with WTO jurisprudence is guaranteed, whereasin integrating the goods sector, WTO consistency can only beguaranteed when the non-WTO-member parties are least-developedcountries. Furthermore in the TRIPs sector, the WTO complianceis not questionable only when the RTA reconfirms original rightsand duties arising under the TRIPs Agreement. Thus, in orderto be consistent with WTO jurisprudence, regional integrationagreements in the area of trade in goods need to be approvedby a two-thirds majority of the WTO members, before they comeinto force. Or, the WTO member could encourage the non-WTO-memberstate to join the WTO before their RTA comes into force. Onthe other hand, in the case of economic integration in the servicesector, as non-WTO-member status of any counterpart economiesdoes not act as a legal impediment, the WTO members may pursuemore active negotiations, while remaining consistent with WTOjurisprudence. In drafting and negotiating on IPR chapters underRTAs, WTO members must be vigilant not to mutually exchangea higher level of IPR protection than that stipulated underthe TRIPs Agreement.     

非WTO法在WTO争端解决中的适用

WTO专家组和上诉机构具有充分的理由适用非WTO法,DSB解决争端的实践表明非WTO法在WTO争端解决程序中具有广泛的效力。非WTO法不仅可以使专家组中止管辖权,甚至在更多的情况下使专家组拒绝管辖,而且非WTO法能有效地证明某些违反WTO规则的做法具有正当性。     

非WTO法在WTO争端解决中的适用

在分析WTO专家组和上诉机构具有充分的理由适用非WTO法的基础上,结合DSB解决争端的实践,认为非WTO法在WTO争端解决程序中具有广泛的效力。非WTO法不仅可以使专家组中止管辖权,甚至在更多的情况下使专家组拒绝管辖,而且非WTO法能有效的证明某些违反WTO规则的做法具有正当性。     

Polar Bear Sports Hunting: Canada’s Flawed Interpretation of the International Polar Bear Agreement

Abstract

In 1973 the five polar bear range states (Canada, Norway, Denmark, the United States, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) entered into the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears and Their Habitat (“the Agreement”). The Agreement’s intention was to protect polar bears through conservation and management measures including, inter alia, prohibiting the taking of the carnivore. The implementation and enforcement of the Agreement was left to each individual country, resulting in differing management practices and legal frameworks among the signatory states. This is particularly stark in the context of sports hunting, with all nations except Canada outlawing the practice. Canada, striking out on its own, chose to interpret the provisions of Article III of the Agreement in such a way as to allow their provinces and territories to enact legislation to regulate the sports hunting of polar bears. This article argues that sports hunting is not a traditional right of Canada’s indigenous peoples and, therefore, Canada’s interpretation of the Agreement is critically flawed.     

Domestic Regulatory Autonomy under the TBT Agreement: From Non-discrimination to Harmonization

Compared with other World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreements,the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement has receivedrelatively little scholarly attention. This paper will illustratethat the TBT agreement has already exhibited potential to penetrateinappropriately into the domestic regulatory order and threatendomestic regulatory autonomy in unexpected ways, even if manyimportant provisions are still to be elucidated in follow-updispute settlement practice. This unwarranted intrusion intodomestic regulatory autonomy is largely due to the reluctanceof WTO panels and the AB to explore the telos of the TBT Agreement.Under the TBT Agreement, not only the conflict between tradeliberalization and regulatory autonomy of WTO Members is intensified,but also the legitimacy of the WTO as a powerful regulator inthe increasingly globalized world is itself being put to question.     

补贴与国际投资的关系及与国际立法趋势的冲突

投资鼓励措施在本质上是一种补贴 ,应当归属WTO管辖范畴。广泛存在的投资鼓励措施与当今国际投资立法的大趋势是相冲突的 ,与国际投资自由化要求的市场准入、国民待遇等核心规则不符合 ,并产生了扭曲投资的消极后果。投资鼓励措施与补贴与反补贴措施协议的冲突 ,揭示出逐步消除投资鼓励措施是全球经济一体化和国际投资自由化的必然要求 ,也是WTO多边贸易体制的要求。     

对“文本”的扬弃：WTO条约解释方法的一种修正——以服务贸易具体承诺表的解释为分析起点

＂文本主义＂是WTO上诉机构所倚重的条约解释方法,这种＂文本主义＂的方法在适用于服务贸易具体承诺表的解释时,可能会产生增加WTO成员在《WTO协定》项下义务的负面效果。因此,服务贸易具体承诺表的解释中有必要引入单个缔约国意图的解释因素。此外,鉴于《WTO协定》文本并不完美,存在着＂空白＂之处,在特定情形中有必要引入《维也纳条约法公约》第31、32条规定之外的条约解释习惯规则,＂遇有疑义,从宽解释＂即为适例。     

The Forest for the Trees: A Roadmap to Canada's Litigation Experience in Lumber IV

The ongoing feud over the export of Canadian softwood lumberto the US is likely one of the most litigated trade disputesin history. In April 2001, the fourth round of the lumber disputecommenced. The ensuing five-and-a-half years featured a numberof cases being filed before panels constituted under the NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the World Trade Organization(WTO), as well as, for the first time, US domestic courts. Duringthe summer of 2006, as with the two rounds of the dispute immediatelybefore it, Canada and the US negotiated a settlement. This articlepresents a broad overview of the softwood lumber dispute andexamines what was accomplished in the Lumber IV litigation.It explores the decisions rendered by NAFTA and WTO panels,as well as the historic foray by Canadian parties into the UScourts. It also analyses lessons learned from the softwood lumberlitigation, and the potential applicability of these lessonsto other complex trade disputes.     

人民币汇率构成对中国出口产品的财政资助吗?

近来以美国为代表的西方对人民币汇率的一项主要指责是将所谓人民币汇率低估与中国对出口产品的补贴挂钩,指责人民币汇率构成WTO法上的补贴,并以提交国际或国内解决相威胁。通过WTO《反补贴协定》对财政资助的规定进行研究表明,人民币汇率既不构成WTO《反补贴协定》第1条第1款(a)项规定的财政资助,也不符合《反补贴协定》例示性清单的例举,不构成我国对出口产品的财政资助和出口补贴。美国这些举动的意图不排除是通过施压欲收到不战而胜的效果,但我国应对这些举动进行跟踪研究,做好充分准备。     

Precaution, Scientific Development and Scientific Uncertainty under the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

The World Trade Organization (WTO) Appellate Body has noted that the precautionary principle will be relevant to the interpretation of the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures in various ways, although the Appellate Body has declined to determine the status of the precautionary principle for international law or to find that it has been written into the SPS Agreement. The Appellate Body's awareness of precaution, the dynamics of scientific research and the nature of scientific uncertainty is to be welcomed. This awareness is helpful in dealing with new and emerging issues, such as the question of when a risk assessment relied upon by a WTO member becomes outdated by virtue of subsequent scientific developments. If maintained, an overly rigid approach to risk assessment, with a tight temporal focus, will inadequately acknowledge the natural processes of flux in the development of scientific knowledge.     

对美国商务部有关汇率低估构成可诉补贴规则的合规性分析

美国商务部新近颁布实施的《补贴税调查程序中有关利益和专向性的修订规则》与世界贸易组织《SCM协定》的规则和实践不符;该修订规则缺乏《SCM协定》中有关提供补贴的适格主体的内容,把汇率低估视为补贴的做法与《SCM协定》行为要件“财政资助”和结果要件“授予利益”的规则和实践也不相符;而把有跨国购买或销售行为的企业视为专向性考察中的一组企业的规定也与《SCM协定》的规则和实践相左;另外,修订规则将汇率低估视为补贴也缺乏国内法的依据。修订规则为美国肆意征收反补贴税大开方便之门,成为贸易保护主义的新武器。我国应该在美国国内司法体系和世界贸易组织多边架构下挑战这一修订规则,纠正美方的贸易保护主义做法。     

WTO规则与中国反补贴立法

补贴和反补贴协定属于货物贸易部分,WTO成员协商达成了《补贴与反补贴措施协定》和《农业协定》。WTO规则对发展中国家反补贴措施作出了特别规定,对禁止性补贴救济措施作出了专门规定。中国政府在《中国加入工作组报告书》中对反补贴作出了具体承诺。为了维护对外贸易秩序和公平竞争,中国正在实施《反补贴条例》。     

WTO强制许可制度的再修正

条款的模糊性是《TRIPS协议修正案》最主要的缺陷。WTO成员方可以任意解释《TRIPS协议修正案》,从而造成各WTO成员方实施《修正案》的措施不一致,WTO成员方也可规定一些不利于《TRIPS协议修正案》实施的国内措施,给《TRIPS协议修正案》的实施带来了很大的困难。明确和完善有关条款,限制WTO成员方任意解释权力,推动《TRIPS协议修正案》的认可和实施确有必要。本文建议在TRIPS协议末尾增加第74条至第84条,以作为TRIPS协议的第八部分