Genetic discrimination: the use of genetically based diagnostic and prognostic tests by employers and insurers

Genetic discrimination is detrimental to public health programs, as well as to society generally. Advances in genetic testing and screening, accelerated and prompted by the Human Genome Initiative, increase society's ability to detect and monitor chromosomal differences. These technologies and their resulting genomic data will enhance medical science, but may also encourage discrimination. Although few employers or insurers currently utilize genetic screening, testing or data, rising employee benefit costs and market forces create powerful incentives for usage. Current municipal, state and federal laws, including the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), may not sufficiently protect employees and insureds from genetic discrimination. While municipal and state protections should not be overlooked, the ADA's sweeping scope may currently provide the most comprehensive safeguard. Federal laws banning discrimination on the basis of race or sex might also successfully redress some forms of genetic discrimination. Genetic technologies' advent necessitates efforts to rectify state and federal statutory coverage gaps, strictly regulate employers and produce comprehensive guidelines regarding its use.     

评美国反基因歧视法律实践及其启示

为防治基因技术的滥用和基因信息歧视,以《2008年禁止基因信息歧视法》为代表的美国联邦和州立法积极实施干预,以确保所有人雇佣机会平等、享有平等健康保险待遇,全面参与社会生活.美国反基因歧视法内容详尽,既禁止基因信息歧视行为,又兼顾保险公司、雇主的合理要求以及避免可能给第三人及公众带来的风险,使违法行为几乎“无缝隙可钻”,且法律对公立雇主的要求高于私立雇主.美国反基因歧视法律实践,对于我们客观认识和把握平等权,完善相关立法和公共政策,具有一定启迪.     

Accommodating Intersexuality in European Union Anti‐Discrimination Law

This article considers the relationship between EU anti‐discrimination law and intersexuality. Recent changes in German legislation that recognise intersexuality have prompted consideration of sex and gender throughout Europe. This article considers some of the disadvantages in the way the German legislation has been adopted and attempts to remedy them through the existent Recast Directive. The article rejects the current binary approach to sex and gender and recommends a broader interpretation that understands sex as a spectrum or continuum. It concludes that anti‐discrimination law may be a more suitable realm for questions of intersex to be raised than mandatory state documentation. Anti‐discrimination law is preferable, it is submitted, because it offers individuals an opt‐in model, which does not require any medical ‘proof’. Similarly, anti‐discrimination law offers activists a fluid site of resistance that is not based on medicine or the potential fixity of the birth certificate.     

Discrimination, Equality and Social Inclusion

Although laws against discrimination have conventionally been justified and articulated according to various conceptions of equality, tensions between different notions of equality undermine the coherence of these explanations. The aim of social inclusion is proposed as part of an alternative justification for discrimination laws. As well as exploring the meaning and implications of the policy of social inclusion for discrimination laws, the extent to which the law already embodies this idea is assessed with particular reference to the scope of anti-discrimination laws, proof of discrimination, justification defences, and positive discrimination. It is concluded that the goal of social inclusion has the potential to provide a vital ingredient in a more coherent, though not uncritical, account of the aims of anti-discrimination legislation.     

烟草专卖若干法律问题探讨

烟草专卖是国家通过制定法律 ,对烟草买卖实行垄断 ,以保证财政收入。《烟草专卖法》和《价格法》是同一位阶的普通法 ,以特别法优于普通法、后法优于前法的理由 ,主张将烟草价格推向市场 ,是不能成立的。这一问题还涉及法律解释的权限、法律解释的效力问题 ,亟需认真研究和对待。     

Insurance Discrimination on the Basis of Health Status: An Overview of Discrimination Practices, Federal Law, and Federal Reform Options

Actuarial underwriting, or discrimination based on an individual's health status, is a business feature of the voluntary private insurance market. The term "discrimination" in this paper is not intended to convey the concept of unfair treatment, but rather how the insurance industry differentiates among individuals in designing and administering health insurance and employee health benefit products. Discrimination can occur at the point of enrollment, coverage design, or decisions regarding scope of coverage. Several major federal laws aimed at regulating insurance discrimination based on health status focus at the point of enrollment. However, because of multiple exceptions and loopholes, these laws offer relatively limited protections. This paper provides a brief overview of discrimination practices, the federal law, and federal reform options to manage discriminatory practices in the insurance and employee health benefit markets.     

当前医疗纠纷案件审理中有关问题初探

审理医疗纠纷案件涉及诸多法律、法规和司法解释,但如何将这些规范运用到医疗纠纷案件审理中,比如适用范围、法律适用、举证责任、医疗事故鉴定与司法鉴定等问题都存在值得探讨的问题。而这些问题的弥补途径只能在司法实践中找到。     

我国民事判决既判力的范围研究

大陆法系既判力制度的核心内容是关于既判力范围的法律规范。既判力的范围包括主观范围、客观范围和时间范围。就主观范围和客观范围而言,我国与大陆法系国家基本一致,但是我国的相关法律规定零散而模糊,具体内容亦有不少不合理处,容易导致既判力在司法实践中的不当扩张。就时间范围而言,我国法律未有规定,导致司法实践中处理相关问题无法可依。为有利于实现民事诉讼解决纠纷的目的和维护法的安定性,我国应当参照大陆法系国家的既判力范围,就既判力的范围作出系统、明确和合理的规定。     

中国现行法律解释制度研究

法律解释制度是国家法律制度整体中具有辐射性和跨越性的重要制度。全国人大常委会行使首要的法律解释权 ,解释法律应当遵循五道程序 ,法律解释同法律具有同等效力 ,最高司法机关可以就司法中具体应用法律的问题进行解释 ,这些内容构成了中国现行法律解释的制度框架。这一制度框架中 ,立法法规定的法律解释制度在法律意义上是成立的 ,1981年全国人大常委会关于加强法律解释工作的决议是否合法则存在疑问。现今绝大多数国家一般都以司法机关为主要的法律解释主体。中国实际采行的则是全国人大常委会和最高司法机关都解释法律的二元化体制 ,前者是法律上的首要法律解释主体 ,后者则是实践中最主要的法律解释主体。几十年间 ,全国人大常委会所作的法律解释为数非常有限 ,倒是法律上处于其次地位的最高司法机关的法律解释为数甚多。在人民代表大会制度下 ,由全国人大常委会行使首要的和主要的法律解释权 ,在逻辑上是成立的。然而逻辑上成立未必能完全解决问题。全国人大常委会会期不足因而不能随时根据需要解释法律 ,它并不具体应用法律因而难以适时就法律应用特别是法律适用做出法律解释。转变这种状况 ,单用所谓立法解释、司法解释、行政解释这种颇具中国特色的分类方法是不敷需要的。在法治发达的环境下     

西法背景下中国古典法律解释的意义——文化视角的说明

以文化视角认识西法背景下的中国古典法律解释的意义可从以下几个路径展开:从学术角度看,中国古典法律解释为当代中国法学提供了宝贵的法律和法学资源;从立法意义上说,古典法律解释所透射出来的对实质合理性的价值追求是一项重要的法治本土资源;从法治角度看,中国古典法律解释为现代法文化的中国化奠定了基础,法治全球化不能离开自身的法文化传统;从法律实施角度看,法律是在解释中实现的,法律解释通过说明法律和创造法律等具体行为来推进制定法的发展和完善。     

无效婚姻法律规范的冲突与协调——新《婚姻法》、《婚姻登记条例》以及最高法院相关解释的理解与适用

我国婚姻法修正后确立了无效婚姻制度,在此基础上,最高人民法院司法解释和民政部《婚姻登记条例》也相继出台,这是我国婚姻立法的一大进步。但在若干具体制度的设置上尚存在不完善之处。从理论和现实出发,探讨无效婚姻的模式、范围、程序和合法化等法律问题,分析无效婚姻法律规范的冲突,并就无效婚姻立法的协调提出自己的建议。     

我国基本法律的标准及范围扩张

我国基本法律的标准和范围,宪法和《立法法》规定的模糊不清,学术界的解释也难以统一,严重影响了我国的立法实践。在造成"高法低定"和"低法高定"的同时,还使基本法律的分布极不平衡,个别重要领域甚至基本法律完全空白。在中国特色社会主义法律体系已经形成的前提下,亟需厘清基本法律的标准,实现范围扩张,使法律体系结构更加严谨、内部更加协调、体例更加科学、调整更加有效。     

关于修改《中华人民共和国海商法》的一点思考——论海上保险中的保险利益原则

海上保险中的保险利益原则主宰着国际海上保险的灵魂。而我国对此原则的研究基本上立足于对经典文献的翻译和国外相应法规的诠释,法律的规定也过于原则而难以操作。因此,在我国《海商法》修改之际,这个问题就更值得我们进一步探讨,以期有助于我国海上保险事业的健康发展。论文分析了海上保险中的保险利益原则的效力以及保险利益原则在海上保险中的具体适用,并在此基础之上提出了关于修改《海商法》的一点初步建议。     

英国反就业歧视制度及实践研究

英国习惯法并不禁止歧视行为,但随着英国加入各种国际组织及国内平权运动的高涨,在20世纪70年代后,英国对于禁止性别、残疾、年龄等制定了大量的法律。当前英国反就业歧视的法律渊源主要包括:欧盟立法和专门性法律。这些法律中就有关就业歧视的违法行为进行了详尽和周密的规定,包括直接歧视、间接歧视、骚扰和受害等四种歧视形态,禁止在雇佣关系中各个阶段的任何歧视。为了有效地防止就业歧视,英国依据《平等法》成立了人权与平等机会委员会。平等机会委员会在应对英国社会中相对突出的就业歧视问题扮演了重要角色。     

欧共体竞争法与成员国竞争法关系初探

由于均对各自适用范围做扩张性解释,因而欧共体竞争法与成员国竞争法在适用范围上不可避免地产生了重叠, 二者构成了一利双重控制体系。但这种双重控制体系又是有条件的双重控制体系,即当二者之间有冲突时,应以共同体竞争法的效力为优先。随着统一大市场的形成以及从属原则被确立为欧盟法的基本原则,这种双重控制体系面临瓦解的可能,在未来有必要对两套法律体系的适用范围进行重新划定,从而使其各行其是,互不干涉,而且预计成员国竞争法的地位会得到相应提升,并发挥其应有的作用。     

论刑法解释与解释文本的同步效力——兼论刑法适用的逻辑路径

我国刑法学界有观点认为,依照刑法关于溯及力的规定,能够直接推论出,刑法立法解释和司法解释也必须遵循“从旧兼从轻”的原则,否则便违反罪刑法定原则。这是不符合逻辑的。解决此问题应当遵循逻辑原则。刑法原则、规则的适用范围不应扩张至其逻辑倾向衰竭的场合,在其逻辑倾向强烈且没有衰弱的时候应当受到尊重而不宜被强行扭曲。在我国,刑法立法解释、司法解释和判例均不属于刑法的渊源,不受从旧兼从轻原则的限制。相反,刑法解释具有与解释文本即刑法同步的时间效力。     

The human genome: lessons for life, love and the law

In 2003, the Australian Law Reform Commission and the Australian Health Ethics Committee (of the National Health and Medical Research Council) completed a major inquiry into the Protection of Human Genetic Information, focusing on privacy protection; protection against unlawful discrimination based on genetic status; and the establishment and maintenance of high ethical standards. The joint inquiry considered these matters across a wide range of contexts, with the final report, Essentially Yours, making 144 recommendations in such diverse areas as medical research; clinical genetic services; genetic research databases; employment; insurance; immigration; sport; parentage testing; and law enforcement. This article discusses some of the major themes that emerged in the course of the inquiry and underpinned the broad-based strategy adopted to prepare Australia for the challenges of the "New Genetics".     

国际私法功能演进之研究

以国际民商事关系作为调整对象的国际私法的传统功能是法律选择,实现这种功能的载体是冲突法制度。随着国际民商事关系的蓬勃发展和国际私法呈现出的统一化趋势,加之冲突法制度的固有缺陷,使得国际私法的功能必然要逐渐演进为法律协调。与法律协调功能相适应,国际私法的范围除了包括冲突法外,还应涵纳国际统一实体法,两类规范相辅相成,互为补充,共同完成对国际民商事关系的调整。     

从欧盟竞争法看中国的反垄断法

中国加入WTO后 ,面临着和世界经济全面接轨 ,却存在着一个巨大的法律真空 ,即缺乏对竞争机制的全面有效保护。无论是从生存还是发展的角度出发 ,中国都急需制订一部竞争法。欧盟竞争法虽然来源于美国反垄断法的思想 ,但是它吸收了其内部成员国的国内法的合理内核 ,同时兼顾两大法系的协调问题 ,顺应竞争法的新的发展趋势。毫无疑问 ,欧盟竞争法对于中国的反垄断立法具有一定的启示和借鉴意义     

我国跨法域刑事管辖权竞合研究

在刑事管辖权竞合下如何确定管辖法域,应当借鉴国际私法中的“最密切联系理论,”根据各法域与案件在连结点上的“数量联系”和“质量联系”来确定跨法域刑事案件的管辖地。