Cybercrime jurisdiction

The principles that govern a sovereign’s exercise of jurisdiction to prohibit conduct and to sanction those who violate such prohibitions are well-established as to conduct occurring in the real, physical world. These principles evolved over the last several millennia, as law increased in sophistication and life became more complex. Real-world crime is, almost exclusively, a local phenomenon; the perpetrator(s) and victim(s) are all physically present at a specific geographical point when a crime is committed. The principles that govern the exercise of criminal jurisdiction are therefore predicated on the assumption that “crime” is a territorial phenomenon. Cybercrime makes these principles problematic in varying ways and in varying degrees. Unlike real-world crime, it is not physically grounded; cybercrime increasingly tends not to occur in a single sovereign territory. The perpetrator of a cybercrime may physically be in Country A, while his victim is in Country B, or his victims are in Countries B, C, D and so on. The perpetrator may further complicate matters by routing his attack on the victim in Country B through computers in Countries F and G. The result of these and other cybercrime scenarios is that the cybercrime is not committed “in” the territory of a single sovereign state; instead, “pieces” of the cybercrime occur in territory claimed by several different sovereigns.     

Cybercrime investigation in Finland

Nordic police cooperation concerning cybercrimes has been developed during the last few years, e.g. through the Nordic Computer Forensics Investigators (NCFI) and Nordplus training programmes. More empirical research is needed in order to enhance cybercrime investigation and address the training needs of police officers. There is a knowledge gap concerning organizational models for the police’s cybercrime investigation: How the function is organized, what the professional characteristics of the staff are and how to combine computer forensics with crime investigation? The purpose of this paper was to study the organization of cybercrime investigation in Finland. Data were collected by a questionnaire from all 11 local police districts and the National Bureau of Investigation in July–August 2014. In addition, six thematic interviews of cybercrime investigators were conducted in 2014. Three investigation models of computer integrity crimes were found: (1) Computer forensic investigators conduct the entire pre-trial examination, (2) Computer forensic investigators conduct only the computer forensics, and tactical investigation is done by an occasional investigator, (3) Computer forensic investigators conduct only the computer forensics and tactical investigation is centralized to designated investigators. The recognition of various organizational models and educational backgrounds of investigators will help to develop cybercrime investigation training.     

The Global Dimension of Cybercrime

Cyberspace and thus cybercrime know no boundaries. This chapter reviews some of the basic forms of cybercrime, draws specific attention to the issues that arise when offences occur across borders and in relation to organised criminal groupings, and provides illustrations based on some of the more celebrated cases of the past few years. The borderless nature of cyberspace and the exponential take-up of digital technology throughout the world guarantee that transnational cybercrime will remain a challenge. Fortunately, many nations are rising to this challenge, individually and collectively, but the web of international cooperation does have its holes and those nations that lag behind the leaders risk becoming havens for cybercriminals of the future.     

国际反网络犯罪立法及其对我国的启示——以《网络犯罪公约》为中心

《网络犯罪公约》作为国际社会反对网络犯罪、加强国际合作的重要产物,第一次明确了网络犯罪行为的种类及行为人的责任,规定了有关电子证据调查的特殊程序法制度,并确立了网络犯罪管辖的基本原则。但也存在网络犯罪圈划定范围过大、人权与自由保护不足、管辖权过分包容并易导致冲突等问题。因此对该公约需理性看待,应发掘、借鉴其闪光点来推动我国的网络犯罪立法。     

论网络犯罪参与行为的正犯性——基于帮助信息网络犯罪活动罪的反思

在网络社会的推动下,犯罪参与结构日益从金字塔式的阶层结构转向链式的扁平结构,从司法解释到刑事立法都需要作出回应。对于网络犯罪参与行为的规范演变,不少学者理解为共犯行为正犯化,但是从其参与行为的结构出发理解为正犯行为共犯化更为妥当。关于帮助信息网络犯罪活动行为有中立帮助行为说、正犯化的帮助行为说、量刑规则独立的帮助行为说和累积犯说等观点的理论争议。应将该类行为理解为正犯行为,并从独立性和参与性两方面明确其行为性质。     

網絡犯罪的刑罰思考

隨著我國進入網絡社會,網絡犯罪隨之而蔓延,刑法如何應對網絡犯罪,就成為一個社會關注的熱點問題,值得刑法學者重視。本期聚焦特別邀請陳興良、王華偉、李世陽三位學者從不同角度展開論述。陳興良教授《網絡犯罪的刑法應對》一文,從宏觀角度梳理了網絡犯罪的類型演變和立法嫗變,並對網絡犯罪進行了教義重塑「總體而言,我國對於網絡犯罪的刑事立法是及時有效的,但隨著網絡犯罪不斷異化和蛻變,加強對網絡犯罪的刑法教義學研究,為司法機關懲治網絡犯罪提供理論根據就變得極為必要。     

Digital Realism and the Governance of Spam as Cybercrime

Spamming is a major threat to the formation of public trust in the Internet and discourages broader civil participation in the emerging information society. To the individual, spams are usually little more than a nuisance, but collectively they expose Internet users to a panoply of new risks while threatening the communications and commercial infrastructure. Spamming also raises important questions of criminological interest. On the one hand it is an example of a pure cybercrime – a harmful behaviour mediated by the Internet that is the subject of criminal law, while on the other hand, it is a behaviour that has in practice been most effectively contained technologically by the manipulation of ‘code’ – but at what cost? Because there is not an agreed meaning as to what constitutes ‘online order’ that renders it simply and uncritically reducible to a set of formulae and algorithms that can be subsequently imposed (surreptitiously) by technological processes. The imposition of order online, as it is offline, needs to be subject to critical discussion and also checks and balances that have their origins in the authority of law. This article deconstructs and analyses spamming behaviour, before exploring the boundaries between law and code (technology) as governance in order to inform and stimulate the debate over the embedding of cybercrime prevention policy within the code itself.     

Cybercrime: Towards an Assessment of its Nature and Impact

This paper discusses some approaches for a comprehensive analysis of cybercrime for both a better understanding of the phenomenon and policies to control it. We first discuss the nature of cybercrime, and review some of the related research issues. In view of its newness, we develop taxonomies for a more systematic classification of the different types of cybercrimes. Next, we explore some of the main empirical questions that need to be studied regarding cybercrime and describe some modeling approaches as well as the data requirements for a better understanding.     

Cybercrime Tendencies and Legislation in the Republic of Macedonia

The advancement of information and communication technologies opens new venues and ways for cybercriminals to commit crime. There are several different types of cybercrime offences that need to be treated in a separate and different manner. The major international source that provides guidelines for treatment of cybercrime is the Convention on Cybercrime adopted by the Council of Europe and the European Commission Action Plan. The purpose of the paper is to present, discuss and analyze the Macedonian legislation treating cybercrime, with respect to the specific cases typically encountered in practice and the international guidelines concerning cybercrime. The major source of cybercrime legislation in Macedonia is the Criminal Code with provisions thereof in ten of its articles; it addresses cybercrimes such as personal data abuse, copyright and piracy issues, production and distribution of child pornography, computer viruses, intrusions into computer systems, computer fraud and computer forgery. We also present and analyze reports on cybercrime complaints and victims from Macedonia, issued by the Internet Crime Complaint Center and the Macedonian Ministry of Internal Affairs. The reports reveal the unusually high number of complaints for perpetrators and victims originating from Macedonia. Furthermore, we highlight several recent cybercrime cases reported in Macedonia. All things considered, the Macedonian penal legislation is modern and it follows the current European and world standards. It provides guidelines for successful resolution of cybercrime committed in the Republic of Macedonia. However, it could be improved by a more active inclusion of Macedonian authorities in the global response to cybercrime and by stronger enforcement of cybercrime prevention measures and strategies.     

知识产权与网络犯罪立法完善需认真研究的几个问题

随着我国经济的发展和科学技术的进步,尤其是加入世贸组织以后,知识产权保护问题的重要性和迫切性愈来愈被社会所认识,对侵犯知识产权行为的法律完善和执法不仅引起全社会关注,甚至成为我国与一些国家双边关系中的焦点问题之一,引起了国家的高度重视。随着计算机网络的广泛普及和应用,网络领域也出现了一些危害社会的新情况。一些知识产权行政执法部门和司法机关针对实践中遇     

打击网络犯罪国际规则的博弈与中国方案

现有的打击网络犯罪国际规范包括公约、协定(指令)和示范法三大类,其中公约类规范是网络犯罪国际规则博弈的焦点。欧洲委员会《布达佩斯公约》和俄罗斯提出的《联合国打击网络犯罪合作公约(草案)》虽然各有特点,但是均存在一定不足,难以成为中国参与网络犯罪国际规则制定的理想法律范本。联合国大会第74/247号决议的通过为网络犯罪规则制定提供了新的发展方向,制定全球性网络犯罪国际公约的中国方案应当以联合国为基础平台,尤其是注重发挥新设立的政府间专家委员会的作用,并将坚持主权原则、体现发展中国家的诉求、推动不同国家打击网络犯罪的协作作为核心主张。具体层面,应以倡导网络空间命运共同体、充分体现中国的经验做法、充分体现网络犯罪治理的时代性与前瞻性为指导理念,同时分总则、定罪、执法程序、国际合作、网络犯罪预防和最后条款等部分进行设计。     

Cybercrime victimization among young people: a multi-nation study

This study examines cybercrime victimization, what some of the common characteristics of such crimes are and some of the general predictors of cybercrime victimization among teenagers and young adults. A combined four-country sample (Finland, US, Germany and UK; n = 3,506) is constructed from participants aged between 15 and 30 years old. According to the findings, online crime victimization is relatively uncommon (aggregate 6.5% of participants were victims). Slander and threat of violence were the most common forms of victimization and sexual harassment the least common. Male gender, younger age, immigrant background, urban residence, not living with parents, unemployment and less active offline social life were significant predictors for cybercrime victimization.     

欧盟重拳出击网络集团犯罪

2013年1月11日，欧盟打击网络犯罪中心（以下简称“EC3”）在荷兰海牙成立。据媒体介绍，该中心由欧洲刑警组织主办，中心现有43名工作人员，每年经费约900万欧元。其首要任务是摧毁那些较大的有组织网络犯罪团伙，尤其会关注以下三方面的犯罪：其一，致力于打击并追缴通过网络诈骗等犯罪所获得的犯罪收益；其二，打击诸如网络儿童陛侵犯等犯罪；其三，打击信息系统攻击等对网络安全造成严重危害的行为。     

网络犯罪的刑法解释空间向度研究

社会空间能够形塑法律事实和法律概念。网络空间的社会性使网络犯罪的事实和概念得以出现和生成。网络犯罪具有计算机作为犯罪对象、计算机作为犯罪主体和计算机作为犯罪工具三种类型。网络犯罪是对传统线下犯罪的进化:由于网络空间中的虚拟性、平台性、智能性、复制性,刑法的空间效力面临虚置危险,犯罪的行为主体转向网络平台,犯罪的行为构造发生松动重组,刑罚的裁量基准愈加重叠多样。对此,刑法应当兼顾立法技术和解释能力。在解释论上,一要认知网络本质,二要重视案件事实。隐喻既是事实分析方法,也是法律解释思想:通过将陌生的线上事物转化为熟悉的线下事物,使案件事实向法律规范靠近;通过释放法律关于线上事物的隐喻含义,将法律规范向案件事实拉近。     

The ties that bind or the ties that break: Examining the relationship between visitation and prisoner misconduct

Purpose

Prior theory and research suggest that inmate visitation can reduce misconduct in prison. However, prior studies have not accounted for the longitudinal and heterogeneous nature of these experiences. This paper addresses this research gap by examining variation in visitation experiences and the relationship between patterns of visitation and misconduct.

Methods

Using a cohort of offenders incarcerated in Florida between 2000 and 2002, group-based trajectory model analyses were used to identify groups of inmates based on their visitation and misconduct patterns. Dual trajectory analysis was used to then assess the extent to which the development of visitation and misconduct patterns are interrelated.

Results

Visitation, and more consistent visitation in particular, is associated with less prison misconduct.

Conclusions

Visitation may reduce inmate misconduct. Implications for future research, theory, and policy are discussed.     

网络犯罪计量对象海量化的刑事规制

我国司法解释性文件根据具体网络犯罪的性质不同,将犯罪对象、危害行为、损害后果、参与人员等计量对象的数量纳入定罪量刑的考量因素。司法实践中这种计量对象的海量化出现使网络犯罪的事实认定与刑事处理饱受困扰,海量化对象使得传统刑事印证证明模式面临挑战,计量异议的反驳困难导致控辩举证不能,定罪量刑标准极易突破而造成刑事处罚扩大化和重刑化,计量事实认定如何确立合理规则存在难题。基于网络犯罪计量对象海量化给司法实践造成的现实困境,应立于秩序维护和人权保障的双重角度,结合刑事法律规定和既有实践经验,在证明方法、证明标准、刑罚适用、入罪条件等方面构建对其处理的适用规则,具体包括,以证明方式的概括印证取代计量对象的具体印证,将计量事实的绝对优势证明独立于普遍性最高证明,以量刑上的从轻处罚弥补事实上的不利认定,从法定刑升格的单一数量标准转向数量与情节的并合标准。     

Cybercrime awareness and victimisation in individuals over 60 years: A Portsmouth case study

Currently cybercrime awareness education tends to be generic, which is not useful for certain demographics, such as older adults, who are at a higher risk of victimisation due to their potential unfamiliarity with cyberspace norms and practices. The Cybercrime Awareness Clinic team carried out focus groups and interviews with older adults with the aim of gaining a better understanding of their cybercrime perceptions and experiences. Fifteen older adults over 60 years participated in focus groups or semi-structured interviews and discussed their experiences of using the internet and dealing with cybercrime. The study concluded that older adults have specific cyberawareness resource requirements, which reinforces the need for more tailored prevention and reporting mechanisms. Education in relation to cyber-risks and prevention is crucial, but can only be effective when co-designed with those that are supposed to receive this training in a grassroots way.