The evaluation of evidence in the forensic investigation of fire incidents (Part I): an approach using Bayesian networks

The forensic investigation of the origin and cause of a fire incident is a particularly demanding area of expertise. As the available evidence is often incomplete or vague, uncertainty is a key element. The present study is an attempt to approach this through the use of Bayesian networks, which have been found useful in assisting human reasoning in a variety of disciplines in which uncertainty plays a central role. The present paper describes the construction of a Bayesian network (BN) and its use for drawing inferences about propositions of interest, based upon a single, possibly non replicable item of evidence: detected residual quantities of a flammable liquid in fire debris.     

The evaluation of evidence in the forensic investigation of fire incidents. Part II. Practical examples of the use of Bayesian networks

This paper extends a previous discussion of the use of Bayesian networks for evaluating evidence in the forensic investigation of fire incidents. Bayesian networks are proposed for two casework examples and the practical implications studied in detail. Such networks were found to provide precious support in addressing some of the wide range of issues that affect the coherent evaluation of evidence.     

Examining fatal and nonfatal incidents involving the TASER

Research Summary According to TASER International, nearly 10,000 police departments in the United States have deployed the TASER as a less lethal force alternative in some capacity. Despite the TASER's increasing popularity, serious questions have been raised about the device's physiological side effects; in particular, Amnesty International has reported that more than 300 people have died after being subjected to the TASER. Although a growing body of research has examined the physiological effects of the TASER on animals and healthy human volunteers in laboratory settings, there has been virtually no empirical analysis of “real‐world” fatal and nonfatal TASER cases simultaneously. This article examines all media reports of TASER incidents from 2002 to 2006 through a comprehensive review of LexisNexis and New York Times archives. We compare TASER incidents in which a fatality occurred to TASER incidents in which a fatality did not occur and then employ multivariate analyses to identify the incident and suspect characteristics that are predictive of articles describing TASER‐proximate deaths. Policy Implications Several suspect factors were significantly associated with the reporting of a fatal TASER incident, including drug use (but not alcohol), mental illness, and continued resistance. Multiple deployments of the TASER against a suspect was also associated with the likelihood of the article describing a fatality—especially if the suspect was emotionally disturbed—which raises the possibility that the risk of multiple shocks might not be uniform for all suspects. More research is needed to explore the relationship between mental illness, drug use (illicit or therapeutic), continued resistance, and increased risk of death. In the meantime, police departments should develop specific policies and training governing the use of multiple TASER shocks against individuals who could be in these vulnerable physiological and psychological states.     

Race, gender, and the newsworthiness of homicide incidents

This study examined the criteria news media use to evaluate the newsworthiness of homicide incidents occurring between the years of 1997 to 2005. By examining how particular race, gender, and race/gender intersections of offender-victim combinations affect news coverage decision-making, this study attempted to identify the most important criteria of newsworthiness. This article contributes to the growing body of newsworthiness of crime research by examining how cultural typification of victims and offenders affects news media coverage of homicides in Newark, New Jersey, a unique research location in which Blacks make up the majority of the population and Hispanics are the dominant population minority. The results provide partial support for Lundman's (2003) conclusion that cultural typification based on race and gender is an important criterion of newsworthiness.     

论基层政府权威的缺失与农村群体性事件——基于巴纳德“权威接受论”的原因分析及其对乡村治理的启示

在农村群体性事件中,基层政府对社会管理的失控,主要归结于基层政府权威的缺失。本文认为,群体性事件的发生往往与基层政府权威的缺失有着密切的联系,而导致基层政府权威缺失的主要原因则可以归结为基层政府的行为失范。同时,部分农村出现"大宗族,小政府"的现象,"长老会"以及乡村"能人"成为农民群体权威的集中者,这些地方权威的存在,在一定程度上削弱了基层政府的权威。本文拟从巴纳德的"权威接受论"角度来分析农村群体性事件中基层政府权威缺失的原因以及对乡村治理的启示。     

群体性事件中的聚众犯罪防控对策研究

社会深刻转型,各种矛盾叠加共振,群体性事件层出不穷,特别是价值观追求型和社会泄愤型群体性事件极易引发聚众犯罪。究其原因,主要是深层次矛盾愈发尖锐、利益表达与协商机制失灵、政府公信力下降等社会因素与各种不良社会心态为主的个人因素的相互作用。在群体性事件视野下防控聚众犯罪,其根本方向是建立社会矛盾化解机制,其着眼点是控制群体性事件的冲突程度,其关键点是建立规则和程序,开启群体性事件的法治化进程,规范公权力的行使。     

An ontology-based approach for the reconstruction and analysis of digital incidents timelines

Due to the democratisation of new technologies, computer forensics investigators have to deal with volumes of data which are becoming increasingly large and heterogeneous. Indeed, in a single machine, hundred of events occur per minute, produced and logged by the operating system and various software. Therefore, the identification of evidence, and more generally, the reconstruction of past events is a tedious and time-consuming task for the investigators. Our work aims at reconstructing and analysing automatically the events related to a digital incident, while respecting legal requirements. To tackle those three main problems (volume, heterogeneity and legal requirements), we identify seven necessary criteria that an efficient reconstruction tool must meet to address these challenges. This paper introduces an approach based on a three-layered ontology, called ORD2I, to represent any digital events. ORD2I is associated with a set of operators to analyse the resulting timeline and to ensure the reproducibility of the investigation.     

Linking arson incidents on the basis of crime scene behavior

The present study investigated the possibility of statistically linking arson cases based on consistency of behaviors from one crime scente to another. Serial and spree arson cases were studied to differentiate underlying themes and to link cases committed by the same offender. The material consisted of 248 arson cases which formed 42 series of arsons. A content analysis using 45 dichotomous variables was carried out and principal compnents (PCA) analysis was performed to identify underlying themes. Summary scores reflecting the themes were calculated. Linking effectiveness was tested with a discriminant analysis using the summary scores. The PCA analysis was successful and underlying themes which were in accordance with previous studies could be identified. Six factors were retained, in the PCA. The linking of the arson cases was possible to a satisfactory level: 33% of the cases could be correctly linked and for over 50% of the cases, the series they actually belonged to was among the ten series identified as most probable on the basis of the linking analysis. From a practical point of view, the results could be used as a basis for developing support systems for police investigations of arson. This research was financially supported by the Finnish Ministry of Interior and by Grant 54456 from the Academy of Finland.     

突发事件应急指挥系统与联合指挥

现场应急的有效协作，是确保有重大事故成功响应的关键因素，联合指挥是管理所有事故应急响应有效机制，是多辖区参与跨地区与跨行业响应行动的必要平台。     

突发事件应急指挥系统与联合指挥

现场应急的有效协作,是确保有重大事故成功响应的关键因素,联合指挥是管理所有事故应急响应有效机制,是多辖区参与跨地区与跨行业响应行动的必要平台.     

The impact of police charges in incidents of wife abuse

The present study addressed the impact of an urban police force laying criminal charges in cases of wife abuse. Follow-up data from battered women and from police officers were collected to identify the long-term consequences of this police policy that began in 1981, including any negative or unintended side effects. Results indicated that the policy resulted in a dramatic increase in police-laid charges (2500%), and a shift from the Family to the Criminal Division of Provincial Court. Based on interview data, victims did not decrease their requests for police service (a feared side effect) and reported a significantly higher level of satisfaction with police service in this area. A significant reduction in police calls and victim-reported violence was associated with police intervention, especially when charges were laid. Paradoxically, police officers' attitudes about the policy were more negative than the actual positive changes that they helped to produce. Considerations for future research and professional training are outlined.     

Bioinformatics and human identification in mass fatality incidents: the world trade center disaster

Victim identification initiatives undertaken in the wake of Mass Fatality Incidents (MFIs) where high-body fragmentation has been sustained are often dependent on DNA typing technologies to complete their mandate. The success of these endeavors is linked to the choice of DNA typing methods and the bioinformatic tools required to make the necessary associations. Several bioinformatic tools were developed to assist with the identification of the victims of the World Trade Center attacks, one of the most complex incidents to date. This report describes one of these tools, the Mass Disaster Kinship Analysis Program (MDKAP), a pair-wise comparison software designed to handle large numbers of complete or partial Short Tandem Repeats (STR) genotypes, and infer identity of, or biological relationships between tested samples. The software performs all functions required to take full advantage of the information content of processed genotypic data sets from large-scale MFIs, including the collapse of victims data sets, remains re-association, virtual genotype generation through gap-filling, parentage trio searching, and a consistency check of reported/inferred biological relationships within families. Although very few WTC victims were genetically related, the software can detect parentage trios from within a victim's genotype data set through a nontriangulated approach that screens all possible parentage trios. All software-inferred relationships from WTC data were confirmed by independent statistical analysis. With a 13 STR loci complement, a fortuitous parentage trio (FPT) involving nonrelated individuals was detected. Additional STR loci would be required to reduce the risk of an FPT going undetected in large-scale MFIs involving related individuals among the victims. Kinship analysis has proven successful in this incident but its continued success in larger scale MFIs is contingent on the use of a sufficient number of STR loci to reduce the risk of undetected FPTs, the use of mtDNA and Y-STRs to confirm parentage and of bioinformatics that can support large-scale comparative genotyping schemes capable of detecting parentage trios from within a group of related victims.     

Classify and control: genetic information in the schools

Recent advances in molecular and behavioral genetics are providing theoretical models to explain complex behavior--learning disabilities and behavioral problems--in simple biological terms. There are intrinsic difficulties in interpreting genetic information. Yet genetic explanations are particularly appealing in school systems pressed by demands for efficiency and accountability. Thus, genetic explanations are affecting the way children are categorized in the schools. This Article reviews genetic advances bearing on educational issues and their implementation through biological tests. It suggests the social consequences and legal implications of the growing prevalence of genetic assumptions.     

Identification of alprazolam in hair in two cases of drug-facilitated incidents

The use of a drug to modify a person's behaviour for criminal gain is not a recent phenomenon. However, the recent increase in reports of drug-facilitated crimes (sexual assault, robbery) has caused alarm by the general public. Among the drugs that can be used, alprazolam (Xanax), an anxiolytic benzodiazepine, has been seldom observed. To document two cases involving this drug, we have developed an approach based on hair testing by LC-MS/MS. After pH 8.4 buffer incubation and extraction with methylene chloride/diethyl ether (80/20, v/v), hair extracts were separated on a XTerra MS C18 column using a gradient of acetonitrile and formate buffer. Alprazolam and diazepam-d5, used as internal standard, were detected by electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. In the first criminal case, alprazolam tested positive in two consecutive 2 cm hair segments at 4.9 and 2.4 pg/mg, from a 12-year-old girl, assaulted by her father who had sedated her three or four times. In the other case, alprazolam was detected in four consecutive 1cm hair segments at 3.1-0.4 pg/mg, obtained from an adolescent who had been forced to prostitute herself.     

The role of mobile computed tomography in mass fatality incidents

Mobile multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT) scanners are potentially available to temporary mortuaries and can be operational within 20 min of arrival. We describe, to our knowledge, the first use of mobile MDCT for a mass fatality incident. A mobile MDCT scanner attended the disaster mortuary after a five vehicle road traffic incident. Five out of six bodies were successfully imaged by MDCT in c. 15 min per body. Subsequent full radiological analysis took c. 1 h per case. The results were compared to the autopsy examinations. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of imaging with mobile MDCT in relation to mass fatality work, illustrating the body pathway process, and its role in the identification of the pathology, personal effects, and health and safety hazards. We propose that the adoption of a single modality of mobile MDCT could replace the current use of multiple radiological sources within a mass fatality mortuary.     

The place of law in the leadership and management of schools

Change is a feature of life in all communities and results in heightened demands being made of individuals and organizations alike. In the school setting administrators and classroom teachers have to respond to a great variety of demands that change has brought. Accountability, in various guises, is one area where changes in societal attitudes have resulted in greater demands being exacted of all professions including that of teaching. In this regard legal accountability is of considerable concern to schools as legal matters increasingly impact on school policies, practices and procedures. In this article research into the relationship between the law and school leadership and management is explored. A brief overview of research into school management and principals as leaders is followed by a discussion of the need for knowledge of areas of law impacting on schools. The article concludes that in order to ensure a school's legal safety, a preventive legal risk management culture is needed.     

Building Codes and Energy Efficiency: How New York City's Building Codes Succeed and Fail in Regulating GHG Emissions

This article seeks to analyze how effective the local NYC building codes are in promoting energy efficiency and regulating greenhouse gas emissions. Part I will highlight the importance of building efficiency and set the stage for how these changes can affect the global climate. Part II will look at specific NYC programs and agencies that are tasked with monitoring this issue, and what their reports indicate as progress in this area. Part III will consider whether what is currently being done is sufficient, and how we might better achieve NYC's emission reduction goals in the building efficiency sector.