A population policy and a development policy are one and the same thing. An introduction to World Population Year

The disappointing results of many family planning programs in developing countries can be traced to the fallacious assumption that most poor people want smaller families. In fact, many poor people want large families. This is largely a response to economic conditions. Large numbers of children are considered necessary to provide support for their parents in old age, help with chores, and contribute to the family's income. If the problem is viewed as not only population but also poverty, then the solution becomes not only contraception but also social and economic development. Increasing equality of income distribution and access to social services is the major factor in both promoting development and reducing the birth rate. There is empirical evidence that significant falls in the birth rate occur only when the standard of living rises substantially for the majority of the population. Improvements in socioeconomic conditions can remove the need for large families. Thus, a development policy and a population policy are 1 and the same thing, and more equitable income distribution is the key to both.     

Women's empowerment revisited: a case study from Bangladesh

This article explores the changing dimensions of women's empowerment over time in three Bangladesh villages where one of the authors has been conducting research since 1991. The article discusses theoretical issues related to the measurement of women's empowerment, and describes findings from a recent study in the villages exploring the current salience of indicators developed for a 1992 survey. In the article we discuss the types of social, economic, and political change that affect the measurement of women's empowerment; propose and explain a new set of indicators for the rural Bangladesh setting; and discuss implications for measuring women's empowerment in other settings.     

Erstwhile villages in urban India

In the process of urbanisation villages are becoming parts of cities or towns, and are becoming almost irreversibly transformed as a result. Erstwhile villages, now parts of cities and towns, are on the margins of an urbanising India. They are lagging behind other parts of the cities in terms of receiving basic urban services and infrastructures. Urban development processes should look at the specific issues and concerns of these villages independently from the need and scope of planning for the city at large. This would make the transition from rural to urban status fair and inclusive for erstwhile villagers.     

Population: fiction and fact

This article was written to refute some common misunderstandings regarding worldwide population levels and worldwide nutrition levels. The world food supply is able to keep pace with high population growth levels. Worl food production currently meets world need; the problem is a distribution system which allocates food only to those who can pay rather than to those who need it. In many developing countries, the best agricultural lands are reserved for commercial crops rather than for subsistence crops. The U.S. food aid program does not help the most needy nations generally. The rate of world population growth is already slowing down. The desire for large families in developing countries is very often a realistic reaction to the prevailing economic system. Family planning programs will succeed. They will succeed even better in countries where general development planning is undertaken concurrently with family planning. Environmental problems are attributable to the consumption explosion in the rich countries rather than to the population explosion in the poor countries.     

Men's violence against women in rural Bangladesh: Undermined or exacerbated by microcredit programmes?

This ethnographic study examined the sociocultural context of domestic violence in 6 rural villages in Bangladesh, and the prevalence of wife-beating and its association with women's empowerment in income generation programs (IGPs). Data were obtained from interviews conducted during 1990-96. Four villages had IGPs, and 2 villages did not have credit programs. Over 66% of women reported having been beaten at one time or another. In one village 87% reported beatings. 38% reported beatings in the preceding year (a range of 14-60%). Men beat their wives over trivial matters or frustrations over problems for which wives were not responsible. Beatings were attributed to mens' desire to control behavior and reassert their authority when challenged or to exploit their wives for financial gain. Some of the most severe beatings were linked with dowry. Both husbands and wives considered the beatings legitimate. The highest level of violence was in villages that were experiencing the most changes in gender roles and that had the most women contributing to family support. The lowest levels of violence were in villages with the fewest contributing to family support. Interviews, case studies, and observations yielded ambivalent evidence about the influence of credit programs on domestic violence. Credit programs have the potential to increase women's status and to disseminate anti-violence messages among both men and women.     

Decentralising urban health activities in developing countries

While there is considerable documented experience of decentralising health services in rural areas of developing countries, the decentralisation of health services in the urban context is rarely analysed. Urban development literature usually fails to address health issues, while the literature on the decentralisation of health services tends to ignore the urban sector. This article addresses the relationship between a Ministry of Health and a City Council, and identifies key issues to consider in the decentralisation of urban health activities: roles and responsibilities; legislation; coordination and communication; and resource constraints. The case-study from Maseru, Lesotho, highlights aspects of planning which need to be considered by national and local governments which are trying to strengthen urban health activities by decentralisation.     

How Can India Catch Up to China? The Importance of Social Investment

After twenty years of economic reform and liberalization, is India now on pace to close the development gap with China? To assess this prospect, I analyzed multi-decade trends across six dimensions of human capabilities crucial to both individual and national development: 1) economic, 2) health, 3) infrastructure, 4) knowledge and technology, 5) public administration and 6) gender equality. I also conducted a focused comparison of two industrial sectors: software services and equipment manufacturing. The evidence shows that India is starting to catch up in several sectors, but overall China currently has a significant lead on most economic and technological indicators. Whereas most scholars studying this divergence have focused on shifting economic policies as the key to convergence, I argue that lingering development gaps may primarily be a result of India’s lower levels of social investment. Thus, if India is to catch up and surpass China, it will not only need supportive economic policies but must also concentrate heavily on expanding and improving rural infrastructure, education, and especially gender equality.     

Bangladeshi migration to Italy: the family perspective

Reformation of immigration policy in Italy has paved the way for the emergence of some non-European emigrant communities in Italy including Bangladeshi community. This study addresses the Bangladeshi migration to Italy by highlighting context of immigrant reception in Italy, characteristics of Bangladeshi emigrants, their channels of migration, role of intermediaries in the migration process, economic cost of migration and inflows of remittances and its implications on family dynamics. This study draws from the Bangladesh Household Remittance Survey conducted by the International Organization for Migration—Dhaka in 2009. The study reports that opportunities in the Italian labour market translate into the increased opportunities for migrant families left behind in Bangladesh.     

Factors affecting access to primary health care services in Pakistan: a gender-based analysis

This article explores access to primary health care (PHC) services and associated factors in Pakistan. Data were collected from 302 respondents. The findings revealed that women accessed PHC services more than men due to their greater health needs. However, a large proportion of both genders did not access any PHC services. Besides general weaknesses, gender-related barriers were found in basic health unit locations, distance, transport, staff availability, income, service hours, and service organisation, confirming gender issues in access to PHC services. Policymakers are recommended to take measures to improve access to PHC services through the formulation of gender-responsive policies and strategies.     

A tale of three villages

This article looks at 3 different individual viewpoints on family size and family planning in 3 different villages in Uttar Pradesh, India. In Ashakhera, where most of the people are upper caste and where the level of literacy is high, the residents understand that family planning is in their best interests. Where at one time the sex of the children to be born was of great concern, it is no longer. In Banthara, on the other hand, there are strict caste differentiations and in general people are poorer. More than 1/2 the population owns no land and it is simply a struggle to stay alive. In spite of this and despite the lack of education, these people want as many children as possible, in order that more can work to bring in more income. Land belongs to the upper castes, so for these people, their labor is the only source of their wealth. The 3rd village, Ballukhera, is small and not especially wealthy. Parents realize that in order that their children have a better life, they must be better educated. Thus, with fewer children, more money can be invested to extend their education. In Ballukhera, consequently, family planning makes sense especially insofar as future aspirations are concerned.     

Health service utilization among widows living with HIV/AIDS: an interview survey in Manipur, India

Widows living with HIV/AIDS (WLHA) are a vulnerable and often overlooked group. The North Eastern Indian state of Manipur, which has one of the highest concentrations of HIV/AIDS cases in India, is not an exception. This paper aims to describe the pattern of and factors contributing to the use of health services by WLHA in Manipur. Structured face-to-face interviews were conducted among 510 respondents. Only 49% of the respondents were aware of available health facilities. The place of residence (67.8%) and appointment at a convenient time (70.8%) were the main factors affecting the use of health services. To improve access to health services, it is imperative that the services of trained health providers are made easily available. Policy makers and organizations working on HIV/AIDs should work together to remove the barriers to the use of health services, making them user friendly for vulnerable groups such as WLHA.     

A logistics support framework: a systems-based approach to logistics planning for development projects

Logistics support plays a critical role in the delivery of quality health care services, particularly in developing countries. This study utilised systems methodology and Integrated Logistics Support (ILS) analysis to develop a support framework for a Vision Centre in rural Vietnam. The methodology employs elements of both “soft” (in particular Checkland's Soft Systems Methodology approach) and “hard” systems practices to develop an accessible and robust logistics planning tool.     

Exploring the perceived influence of South African adolescents on product purchases by family communication type

Abstract

This article investigates the effect of family communication types on the perceived purchase influence of South African adolescents (13–18 years) across 34 product groups. The research builds on previous research in developed countries such as America and Israel, but represents only one of a few in a developing country such as South Africa that integrates family communication and consumer purchase behaviour theory. The article shows statistically significant differences in the perceived purchase influence of adolescents by family communication type for 13 of the 34 product groups investigated. From the inferential statistical analyses presented in the article, it is evident that the influence of adolescents in pluralistic families is far greater than in consensual, protective or laissez-faire families. This implies that adolescents’ influence in product purchases is likely to be greater as family communication becomes more open, and as unconstrained discussions on a wide range of topics with all family members are encouraged. This finding is particularly evident in the purchase of children's products (toys, clothing and footwear), family activities (take-away meals, snacks and outside entertainment), children's educational products/services (courses and schools), watches and personal jewellery, cosmetics, cell phones, reading matter, and gymnasiums, health, sport and social clubs. The outcome of the research indicates that the influence of South African adolescents has broadened and is no longer only relevant to children's products. This strengthening influence of children on product choices of South African families has clear implications for marketers who need to target this market segment. Knowledge of family communication patterns and how these impact on children's influence in actual product purchases presents a valuable opportunity for marketers to develop effective future marketing segmentation and communication strategies.     

Promoting NGO–academic partnerships for population,health, and environment learning

Population, health, and environment (PHE) projects integrate family planning, community health, conservation, and livelihoods activities into a single effort. Despite growing calls for integrated services, relatively little academic research on PHE has been published, which has hampered the development of the approach. This article argues that additional partnerships between academics and NGOs are necessary to further advance learning around PHE. However, such partnerships need not be approached in the same way. The article discusses barriers that currently impede the development of stronger partnerships and adapts (Roper, L. 2002. “Achieving Successful Academic-Practitioner Research Collaborations.” Development in Practice 12 (3–4): 338–345) typology of NGO–academic partnership models to describe how different relationship types are currently leveraged within the PHE community.     

Toward a world population program

Problems facing the less developed countries in the field of family planning are inadequate funds, weak administration, insufficient personnel, and sometimes lack of governmental will. To close the "family planning gap," the gap between the number of married women who now have access to modern birth control techniques and the number who would use them if given the opportunity, in the less-developed world as a whole would cost an estimated $3 billion ($2 billion if the People's Republic of China is excluded). The author develops 8 national and international guidelines for the tackling of the population problem. Among other points the guidelines state that assistance to a country in family planning should be solely at the request of that country and that national assistance should be related maximally to the work of international organizations. The history of United States and international efforts to deal with the world population crisis are detailed. During 1962-1967 the United States and the United Nations created decisive policies granting family-planning assistance to less-developed countries. The author urges a world population program, directed by the U.N. and financed by a special fund of voluntary contributions, to increase U.N. and regional economic commission staffs concerned with family planning, develop training centers for family planning personnel, and develop pilot or demonstration projects to get national or regional programs under way.     

Reproductive health services: “Business-in-a-Box” as a model social innovation

Access to reproductive health services and products in remote and rural communities is a critical area of concern for developing countries. This article considers a pilot intervention in three districts of Pakistan where “Business-in-a-Box” as a model of place-based social innovation is used to improve the socio-economic conditions of women in remote rural settings through socially responsible micro-franchising. It finds that such programmes help build a sense of community, ownership and grassroots capabilities and skills. The article also discusses the impacts of such actions on the individual and community life, and the need to upscale and sustain these initiatives.     

Building skills in qualitative research to inform pro-poor policy: experience from a Bangladeshi NGO

This paper describes the research methodology followed in the ‘Livelihoods of the Extreme Poor Project’, a collaborative research project in Bangladesh between PROSHIKA (a large national NGO) and DFID (the UK government department for international development). The dual purpose of this project was to learn about poor people's livelihoods and train the PROSHIKA research team in the use of qualitative research methods. The research findings were to be fed directly into policy formulation and the planning of new development interventions for the poorest people in Bangladesh. The paper provides an assessment of what the approach used achieved both in terms of building staff capacity and in policy influence, concluding that it has been largely successful in achieving its purpose.     

Everyday health security practices as disaster resilience in rural Bangladesh

Health security is a relatively new concept in terms of how it is practised in disaster-prone locales. We observed 10 rural households in Bangladesh for four months using informal interviews, field diaries, and observation. The findings suggest that the everyday practises of health security involve the capabilities of “caring for themselves” in resource-constrained contexts. Understanding how households care for themselves prior to and during disasters presents an opportunity to examine how improved health might reduce the effects of disasters, ill health, and poverty. Some interventions are proposed to improve health security for poorer households in general and women in particular.     

Better safe than sorry

Many women in developing countries would rather risk an unwanted pregnancy than put up with the side effects of efficient contraceptive methods. 40-70% of Third World users abandon use of oral contraceptives and the IUD within 2 years because of side effects. An additional 25-33% of women do not use contraceptives at all because of a fear of side effects. In part, this reflects the tendency of pharmaceutical firms and health staff to avoid discussing the side effects of modern contraceptives with Third World women, out of concern this will keep them away from family planning clinics. Without proper information, women become suspicious they are being manipulated or interpret unrelated symptoms as due to contraception. Another reason for low rates of acceptance of modern contraceptive methods is the failure of family planning programs to match the contraceptive prescribed to the needs of the acceptor. Women who want a number of children, for example, should not be given a method such as the IUD or injectables that may interfere with future fertility. In a village in Bangladesh, the birth rate actually went up after the pill was introduced because it interfered with lactation and was abandoned by 80% of initial acceptors. Ironically, there is evidence that efficient methods turn out to be less efficient in preventing births than their traditional counterparts such as the widely acceptable coitus interruptus method.     

Trading culture for development: assessing perceptions among rural agropastoral peoples in Tanzania

Development in rural parts of Africa is strongly desired by local people. Other views expressed by local people towards outside development initiatives vary considerably. Some perceptions are negative, as development recipients view development as a destructive agent of change in the local culture. Despite the negative effects associated with development, this study documented a unanimous desire among a stratified random sample of 418 respondents for more development interventions. Two villages in south-central Tanzania were selected based upon their adjacent proximity to Ruaha National Park. Findings suggest that a capability framework is useful for exploring local perceptions to outside development assistance.