The 5-year course of intimate partner violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States

This article examines the 5-year incidence, prevalence, and recurrence of intimate partner violence (IPV) among White, Black, and Hispanic intact couples in the United States. A national multistage household probability sample of couples, age 18 years or older, was interviewed in 1995 with a response rate of 85%, and reinterviewed in 2000 with a response rate of 72%. Results indicate that the incidence and recurrence of IPV are higher for Blacks and Hispanics than for Whites. Compared to Whites, Hispanics are 2.5 times more likely to initiate IPV between baseline and follow-up and Blacks are 3.7 times more likely to report IPV at baseline and follow-up. Couples reporting severe IPV in 1995 are more likely than others to report severe IPV at follow-up. The rate of recurrence for severe IPV among Black and Hispanic couples is 6 and 4 times higher, respectively, than the rate among Whites. The results suggest that Blacks and Hispanics may be more affected by IPV.     

The Effects of Acculturation on Intimate Partner Violence Among Chinese Immigrants in New York City

Little research has examined the role of acculturation in the determination of intimate partner violence (IPV) among Chinese immigrants in the United States. Data on 166 IPV Chinese immigrant couples obtained from a Chinese American community organization were analyzed for this study. Findings show that the level of acculturation and socioeconomic status were associated with severity, frequency, length, and type of abuse committed by Chinese immigrant men although not all factors played an equally important role in explaining IPV. Certain Chinese immigrant victim characteristics, such as having social networks, were also related to the experience of IPV.     

Socioeconomic Predictors of Intimate Partner Violence Among White, Black, and Hispanic Couples in the United States

This study assesses the relative influence of various SES measures on the probability of intimate partner violence (IPV) among a national sample of White, Black, and Hispanic married and cohabiting couples. Participants were interviewed in conjunction with the 1995 National Alcohol Survey. Sociodemographic, psychosocial, and alcohol consumption data were obtained from both members of the couple. IPV was measured through the Conflict Tactics Scale, Form R. Bivariate tests were employed to investigate the association between SES and IPV. Deviance statistics, based on contrasting transformed likelihood measures obtained through multivariate logistic regression models, were computed to assess the relative influence of SES on the probability of IPV. Results indicate that annual household income had the greatest relative influence on the probability of partner violence. Future research is needed to explore the pathways by which SES contributes to the risk of partner violence.     

Intimate partner violence and alcohol problems in interethnic and intraethnic couples

Despite the growing number of interethnic marriages in the United States, few studies have examined intimate partner violence (IPV) in interethnic couples. This article examined past-year occurrences of IPV across interethnic and intraethnic couples and tested correlates of IPV specifically in interethnic couples. Data were from a national survey of couples 18 years of age and older from the 48 contiguous states. Interethnic couples (n = 116) included partners from different ethnic backgrounds, including Black-White, Hispanic-White, and Black-Hispanic couples. White (n = 555), Black (n = 358), and Hispanic (n = 527) intraethnic couples included partners with the same ethnicity. Data analyses were prevalence rates and logistic regressions. The analysis showed that interethnic couples were comparatively younger and had shorter relationships than intraethnic White, Black, and Hispanic couples. Male partners in interethnic couples had higher rates of binge drinking and alcohol problems compared with male partners in intraethnic couples. Past-year prevalence rates for any occurrence of IPV and acts of severe IPV were higher for interethnic couples relative to intraethnic couples. Most occurrences of IPV for interethnic couples were mutual. Factors predicting IPV among interethnic couples included marital status, couples' age, male alcohol problems, and female impulsivity. Mounting evidence points to interethnic couples as a high-risk group for IPV. Interethnic couples may be at greater risk for IPV because of their younger age, binge drinking, and alcohol problems. Future research could build on this study by examining cohort effects and regional differences in IPV for interethnic couples and the risk for IPV across interethnic couples of different ethnic compositions.     

Intimate Partner Violence and Parenting: Examining the Roles of Parenting Stress,Timing, and Maternal Abuse History

Maternal intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure has been linked to negative parenting outcomes. Studies suggest that parenting stress is an intermediary between IPV exposure and parenting, though past work has relied on small, clinically- referred samples. Moreover, it is unclear if parenting is differentially affected by a mother’s recent versus past history of IPV exposure, or whether a mother’s childhood abuse history moderates the associations of IPV with parenting stress and parenting behaviors. The current study examines whether recent IPV, versus past IPV, has stronger associations with parenting stress and parenting behaviors and tests whether maternal abuse history moderates these associations. Using structural equation modeling, we tested relations between IPV (frequency and recency), parenting stress, and parenting behaviors cross-sectionally and longitudinally in a large community sample of IPV-exposed low-income Hispanic and African American mothers of children aged 0–14 years (N?=?1159). We found that mothers who reported IPV exposure in the past year reported higher negative and lower positive parenting behaviors than mothers who reported less recent exposure. Further, we found that the frequency and timing of IPV exposure affected parenting indirectly through increased parenting stress. However, a childhood history of abuse did not appear to sensitize women to these effects. These findings suggest that psychological interventions aimed at reducing the subjective experience of parenting stress, as well as increased access to resources that reduce objective childcare burden, are important for promoting resilience among families exposed to violence.

     

Intimate partner violence, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder as additional predictors of low birth weight infants among low-income mothers

Estimates of intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy vary by population being studied, measures, and other methodological limitations, hindering the ability to gauge the relationship between IPV and negative birth outcomes. The authors report aggregated data from a subsample (n = 148) of the first three waves of the Women's Employment Study. The authors compared groups of women who did and did not give birth to low birth weight infants on demographic, material deprivation, risk behavior, mental health, and IPV factors. The prevalence of domestic violence was more than twice as high for women with low birth weight infants as those women who had a normal weight infant. When considering additional risk factors, including food insufficiency, substance dependence, and depression and/or posttraumatic stress disorder, IPV remained a significant indicator, but it was most strongly associated with low birth weight among women also experiencing depression and/or posttraumatic stress disorder.     

Relationships among alcohol outlet density, alcohol use, and intimate partner violence victimization among young women in the United States

Greater access to alcohol has been widely found to be associated with many negative outcomes including violence perpetration. This study examines the relationship between alcohol outlet density, alcohol use, and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization among young women in the United States. A direct association between alcohol outlet density in one's neighborhood and the likelihood of IPV victimization was examined. Data were from Wave III of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), which followed a nationally representative sample of adolescents into adulthood. Participants were young adult females age 18 to 26 at Wave III. Of the 4,571 female respondents who reported a current heterosexual relationship and had IPV data, 13.2% reported having been the victim of physical violence only and 6.5% experienced sexual only or physical and sexual violence in the relationship during the past year. In the regression models tested, there was no significant direct association between neighborhood alcohol outlet density and IPV victimization nor was there an association between outlet density and drinking behaviors, thus eliminating the possibility of an indirect association. Results of fully adjusted models indicate females who drank heavily, whether infrequently or frequently, were at significant risk for experiencing sexual only IPV or sexual and physical IPV. Asians and Native Americans were at significantly greater odds of experiencing sexual only or sexual and physical IPV compared with non-Hispanic Whites, while non-Hispanic Blacks were at significantly greater odds for physical only IPV. We conclude that a continuous measure of alcohol outlet density was not associated with IPV in models controlling for individual and other neighborhood characteristics. Young women who drink heavily, whether infrequently or frequently, have greater odds of experiencing sexual only or sexual and physical compared to abstainers. Similar to previous study findings, young women living with or married to their partner were at far greater risk of experiencing physical only and/or sexual only or sexual and physical IPV. The study adds to the growing body of literature that examines how community characteristics such as outlet density influence the likelihood of IPV.     

Problem Drinking, Jealousy, and Anger Control: Variables Predicting Physical Aggression Against a Partner

Alcohol use and intimate partner violence (IPV) are significantly related, but only a subset of individuals who drink are aggressive and relatively little is known about what moderates this relationship in community samples. Two risk factors, anger control and jealousy, were hypothesized to moderate the relationship between IPV and problem drinking in a sample of 453 community couples. A significant three-way interaction indicated that men with jealousy problems, but not anger control problems, were most likely to show the strongest association between problem drinking and IPV. In accord with the multiple threshold model of IPV, specific combinations of risk factors appeared to represent different thresholds in which problem drinking influenced the likelihood of IPV.     

Intimate partner violence and long-term psychosocial functioning in a national sample of American women

Using a nationally representative sample of American married or cohabiting women, this prospective study examined women who reported or denied intimate partner violence (IPV) at wave 1 and compared them on a range of psychosocial outcomes at a 5-year follow-up. This study also examined the rate of divorce or separation during the 5-year interval among women who reported IPV at wave 1 and explored whether certain predictors were related to ending an abusive relationship with an intimate partner during the period. Women with IPV at wave 1, compared to women without IPV, were significantly more likely to experience a greater degree of depressive symptoms and functional impairment and less self-esteem and life satisfaction at the 5-year follow-up. Also, nearly half of the women in an abusive relationship left the relationship within the period. Leaving the abusive relationship was associated with lower individual income and more social support at wave 1.     

Prevalence and demographic correlates of intimate partner violence in Asian Americans

This study provides the first national estimates of the prevalence and correlates of intimate partner violence (IPV) among Asian Americans. Population estimates are based on data from 1470 Asian Americans interviewed for the National Latino and Asian American Study. Interviews were conducted in English, Chinese, Tagalog, or Vietnamese. Results suggest that rates of IPV among Asian Americans are low compared to the general U.S. population. Minor violence victimization by a current intimate partner was reported by 10.2% of women and 12.0% of Asian American men. Notably, a greater proportion of participants admitted having perpetrated IPV than having been a victim. Predictors of IPV included younger age, higher SES, alcohol- and substance-use disorders, depression, ethnicity, and being U.S.-born. Results suggest the need for additional research to examine the interactions between gender, ethnicity, and acculturation to develop group-specific models of IPV risk and resilience within diverse Asian American groups.     

Unemployment among women: examining the relationship of physical and psychological intimate partner violence and posttraumatic stress disorder

Prior research has demonstrated that intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with employment instability among poor women. The current study assesses the broader relationship between IPV and women's workforce participation in a population-based sample of 6,698 California women. We examined past-year IPV by analyzing specific effects of physical violence, psychological violence, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms as predictors of unemployment. Results indicated substantial rates of unemployment among women who reported IPV, with rates of 20% among women who experienced psychological violence, 18% among women who experienced physical violence, and 19% among women with PTSD symptoms. When the relationship was adjusted for demographic characteristics and educational attainment, PTSD (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.60; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.22, 2.09) and psychological violence (AOR = 1.78; 95% CI = 1.36, 2.32), but not physical violence, were associated with unemployment. Implications for supported employment programs and workplace responses to IPV are discussed.     

Associations between intimate partner violence and emotional distress among pregnant women in Durban, South Africa

Intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy has been associated with multiple negative health outcomes including emotional distress during pregnancy. However, little is known about IPV during pregnancy and its association with emotional distress among South African women. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of both emotional distress and IPV during pregnancy, to identify whether different exposures of violence were associated with emotional distress and to assess whether social support attenuated the relationship between IPV and emotional distress. Pregnant women enrolled in the South Africa HIV Antenatal and Posttest Support Study (SAHAPS) who completed the baseline survey were included in this cross sectional analysis. We used logistic regression models to explore bivariate and multivariate relationships between the proposed covariates and emotional distress. Nearly a quarter of women experienced some type of IPV during the current pregnancy, with psychological violence being the most prevalent. The odds of emotional distress was 1.41 times (95% CI: [1.26, 1.57]) higher for each additional episode of psychological violence and 2.01 times (95% CI: [1.16, 3.77]) higher for each additional episode of sexual violence during pregnancy, adjusting for other covariates. Physical violence was only marginally associated with increased odds of emotional distress. Finally, social support was marginally significant as a main effect but did not attenuate the relationship between IPV and emotional distress. The high prevalence of IPV among South African women and its association with emotional distress during pregnancy suggest that interventions that reduce violence during or prior to pregnancy are needed.     

Acculturation and reported intimate partner violence among Latinas in Los Angeles

This study sought to understand the relationship between acculturation and reporting intimate partner violence (IPV) among Latinas. A cross-sectional interviewer-administered survey was conducted at public health care clinics throughout Los Angeles County. Logistic regression was used to estimate the effect of acculturation on reporting IPV. An increasing trend of reporting IPV was observed among Latinas who were more acculturated (chi-square = 41.02, p = .0006). Highly acculturated Latinas were more likely to report IPV compared with least acculturated Latinas (prevalence odds ration = 2.18, 95% confidence level = 0.98, 4.89) and moderately acculturated Latinas were more likely to report IPV compared with least acculturated Latinas (prevalence odds ration = 1.29, 95% confidence level = 0.69, 2.43). Culturally competent IPV prevention programs may be the key to significantly reducing the number of women exposed to this serious public health problem.     

Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy and 1-Year Post-Partum

Using data on a nationally representative cohort of pregnant women in US cities, this study examines the prevalence and correlates of interpersonal violence (IPV)—physical, emotional, and coercion-control—during pregnancy and 1 year after birth. Overall, 33% of mothers and 40% of fathers experience some form of IPV during or after pregnancy. Hispanic women and those no longer romantically involved with their children’s fathers were most likely to experience IPV during pregnancy. Less educated women, women who reported that they or their spouses used substances (i.e., alcohol or illicit drugs), and women who reported that their pregnancy was unwanted were at high risk of IPV both during and after their pregnancy. Violence during pregnancy strongly predicted violence after pregnancy. Recent immigrants were among the least likely to leave a violent relationship 1-year post-partum. US-born women who were employed during their pregnancy were among the most likely to leave an abusive relationship 1-year post-partum. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Associations between expectancies of alcohol and drug use, severity of partner violence, and posttraumatic stress among women

Women who experience recurrent intimate partner violence (IPV) may use alcohol or drugs because they expect that these substances will help them cope with the negative physical and psychological sequelae of IPV. However, expectancies for alcohol and drug use have not been explored among this population of women. We used the Relaxation and Tension-Reduction Scale, Arousal and Aggression Scale, and Social Assertion Scale of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire and modified its items to assess both alcohol and drug expectancies of 212 community-based, IPV-exposed women. Results of bivariate correlations showed that greater alcohol and drug expectancies were significantly correlated with greater alcohol problems and greater posttraumatic stress total and symptom severity scores. Results of a multivariate regression model showed that after controlling for demographic characteristics and history of childhood trauma, Relaxation and Tension- Reduction expectancies were associated with number of days of alcohol use, alcohol problems, physical and sexual IPV severity scores, and posttraumatic stress total and reexperiencing symptom severity scores. Expectancies do not significantly moderate the relationships between IPV, posttraumatic stress, and problematic alcohol and drug use. Given the strong relationships of expectancies with IPV severity, posttraumatic stress, and alcohol problems, expectancies may serve as targets for interventions to reduce alcohol use and problems and improve health-related outcomes in IPV-exposed women.     

Relationship Between Intimate Partner Violence, Depressive Symptomatology, and Personality Traits

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) and personality disorder symptoms controlling for depressive state. Victims of IPV (n?=?176) and non-abused women (n?=?193) completed the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire (DAPP-BQ), Index of Spouse Abuse (ISA), and Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). IPV victims scored higher than non-abused women on Intimacy Problems, and scored lower on Rejection traits, after adjustment for depressive symptoms. Severity of the IPV was related to Cognitive Distortion, Suspiciousness, Restricted Expression, and Intimacy Problems, and the length of the IPV was negatively associated with Rejection. The current study suggests only modest differences in personality traits between IPV and non-abused women. The DAPP-BQ traits associated with severity of IPV, in a dose-response manner, would partially reflect the symptoms of complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD), although this possibility deserves further study.     

How the Indashyikirwa Intimate Partner Violence Prevention Programme in Rwanda Influenced Parenting and Violence against Children

There is increasing interest in working at the intersections of intimate partner violence (IPV) and violence against children (VAC), especially in the family, yet few programmatic strategies exist or have been evaluated to assess the combined impact of strategies on both types of violence. This paper addresses this gap by exploring the influence that Indashyikirwa—a programme designed to reduce IPV in Rwanda— had on VAC in the families of couples participating in the programme. Indashyikirwa included a 21-session couples’ curriculum, safe spaces for IPV survivors, and community activism against violence. In addition to reductions in IPV, a randomized control trial found significant reductions in parent’s reports of children witnessing IPV, parents’ attitudes condoning harsh physical punishment of children, and parents’ use of corporal punishment as discipline. This paper uses qualitative data to better understand how and why the couples’ curriculum influenced parenting and VAC. Twenty-eight participants (fourteen male-female couples) were individually interviewed at three time points, once before and twice after the couples’ curriculum implementation. Six men and six women who completed the curriculum and subsequently carried out activism were also interviewed at two time points. The data were analyzed thematically. Pathways motivating couples’ attitude and behavior changes towards children included reflecting on the consequences of IPV for children and appreciating the benefits for children of non-violent, gender equitable households. This analysis suggests that working with co-habiting couples presents a viable strategy for working to prevent IPV, VAC and promote more gender equitable family dynamics.

     

Prevalence and Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence Among Young, Middle, and Older Women of Korean Descent in California

This research examined the prevalence and correlates of intimate partner violence (IPV) among younger, middle-aged, and older Korean American women. Data were drawn from telephone interviews of a population-based, representative probability sample (N?=?592) of female adults of Korean descent residing in California, with a completion rate of 70?%. Data were grouped by age. In each group, psychological aggression was the most common type of IPV in the past year, followed by a moderate form of sexual coercion, while physical assault and injury were infrequent. Immigration stress was associated with psychological aggression in all three groups, and partner alcohol use was associated in none. Other predictors varied by group. Results suggest that psychological abuse is a serious issue, and that women’s life stage is an important consideration in IPV among Korean Americans. Findings, which sometimes diverged from those of prior studies of this population, merit further investigation.     

Identifying Predictors for Children Witnessing Intimate Partner Violence

Research has shown that intimate partner violence (IPV) prevalence and severity is higher and IPV duration is longer among couples that have children. Women frequently report that their children are the reason why they stay, leave, or return to an IPV relationship. Our study used results from a two-wave telephone survey to determine what IPV-associated factors were significant predictors of respondents’ children witnessing IPV, as well as estimating prevalence of children’s exposure to violence. We found that an increase in respondents’ age was significantly associated with increased odds of a child being exposed to violence. We also found that children witnessing violence were almost twice as likely to have mothers who reported leaving abusers. We hypothesize that increasing age corresponds to improved confidence in help-seeking behaviors. Our findings represent an important first step for future research on understanding how children influence IPV victims’ decision-making in seeking out service providers for help.     

Optimal methods to screen men and women for intimate partner violence: results from an internal medicine residency continuity clinic

Contradictory data exist regarding optimal methods and instruments for intimate partner violence (IPV) screening in primary care settings. The purpose of this study was to determine the optimal method and screening instrument for IPV among men and women in a primary-care resident clinic. We conducted a cross-sectional study at an urban, academic, internal medicine residency continuity clinic in Connecticut among English or Spanish speaking adult patients. One group of patients ( n = 340) received a self-administered questionnaire (SAQ) containing the partner violence screen (PVS) and the Hurt, Insulted, Threatened or Screamed at Questionnaire (HITS). A second group (n = 126) was screened with PVS and HITS by their primary care providers during face-to-face (FTF) clinical encounters. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to determine the association between IPV prevalence and screening method (SAQ or FTF) after adjusting for socio-demographic effects. The overall IPV prevalence was 17.3% using the SAQ and 9.0% with FTF screening (p = .008). Patients receiving the SAQ were more likely to report IPV than those who were screened FTF (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 2.6, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.2-5.6). This effect persisted for women, who had a higher odds of IPV when screened through a SAQ than when screened FTF (AOR: 3.5, 95% CI: 1.4-8.6). Men did not differ in reporting IPV between methods: 11% with SAQ versus 9.4% FTF (p = .69). In internal medicine residency continuity clinics, a SAQ for IPV may result in higher disclosure and completion rates among female patients compared to FTF screening. Unique screening instruments and methods may be needed for men.