国际恐怖主义犯罪及其刑事处置

恐怖主义是当今国际社会普遍关注的焦点问题之一,对恐怖主义犯罪的惩治也愈加成为当今世界及各国关注的热点。如何有效地惩治恐怖主义犯罪既是国际社会和各国需要迫切解决的课题,也是目前学术界研究的热点话题。     

"非政治化"不等于"非政治性"——简析恐怖主义犯罪政治动因及非政治化对策

国际恐怖主义是当今国际社会普遍关注的"焦点问题"之一。恐怖主义已经被认为是一种公害,"可以与战争、国家债务、人口膨胀、饥饿、贸易逆差、疾病等相提并论",有人把恐怖主义狂潮称为"二十世纪的政治瘟疫",甚至有人认为恐怖主义应与政治腐败、环境污染一起列为二十一世纪人类面临的三大威胁。因此,如何有效地惩治国际恐怖主义犯罪,已经成为当今国际社会与各国刑事立法需要迫切解决的课题,也是目前法学界深入研讨的问题之一。本文着眼于恐怖主义犯罪对策中的国际刑事司法合作,进而分析了恐怖主义犯罪的政治动因,并就国际刑事司法合作中的恐怖主义犯罪非政治化理论加以简要的分析。     

恐怖主义犯罪及其惩治

2015年1月7日,法国巴黎《查理周刊》遇袭事件,再一次使大众聚焦于恐怖主义.国际社会与各国政府对恐怖主义犯罪的重视程度也越来越高.恐怖主义犯罪具有国际性、组织性、犯罪手段多样性等特点,在恐怖主义犯罪发生时,国际社会通常显得措手不及.因此,如何能够有效惩治恐怖主义犯罪,已经成为国际社会以及各国政府迫切需要解决的问题.现如今,反恐问题已经不是涉及一个国家或单独地区的问题了,那么,该如何构建一个合作机制来共同对抗恐怖主义犯罪？这些问题都有待探讨解决.     

论国际恐怖主义犯罪及其惩治策略

国际恐怖主义犯罪已成为危害当今世界政治、经济和社会安全的重要且突出的非传统安全因素,在政治多极化、经济全球化、社会信息化的时代背景下,国际恐怖主义犯罪频繁发生,破坏规模增大,覆盖范围更广,并往往与民族和宗教问题联系在一起。如何有效地打击国际恐怖主义犯罪行为,已成为当前国际社会与各国刑事立法需要迫切回应的课题。本文拟从国际反恐怖主义犯罪的背景现状着手,分析其犯罪性质,在揭示国际恐怖主义犯罪新特点的基础上,就惩治与防范国际恐怖主义犯罪的对策及法律对策加以论述。     

论惩治恐怖活动犯罪国际立法的现状

恐怖主义犯罪是国际社会与世界各国在21世纪高度关注并严加防范和打击的除地方冲突、毒品走私之外的"世界三大罪犯灾难",全球各国强烈谴责恐怖活动的同时,进行反恐立法是其中最重要的措施,本文拟就惩治恐怖活动犯罪的国际刑法规范、国外有关法律予以简要分析。     

打击恐怖犯罪的中国刑法应对

"9·11"事件以后,反对恐怖主义逐渐成为国际社会关注的焦点问题,各国均通过加入国际公约、完善国内法来打击恐怖主义,有关恐怖主义的一些热点问题都得到了深入的探讨。但是,如何完善国际法律制度,如何在打击恐怖主义活动的同时坚持国际法基本原则,如何协调各国对恐怖主义活动的认定及惩治方面的分歧等问题仍然值得学者们进一步反思与研究。本期热点笔谈组织了有关反对恐怖主义专题,希望通过学者们对反对恐怖主义、全球法制建设问题的进一步研究,为学界提供研究反对恐怖主义问题的不同视角,也希望对我国反对恐怖主义决策的选择、制度的完善有所裨益。     

反恐与全球治理的框架、法治

"9·11"事件以后,反对恐怖主义逐渐成为国际社会关注的焦点问题,各国均通过加入国际公约、完善国内法来打击恐怖主义,有关恐怖主义的一些热点问题都得到了深入的探讨。但是,如何完善国际法律制度,如何在打击恐怖主义活动的同时坚持国际法基本原则,如何协调各国对恐怖主义活动的认定及惩治方面的分歧等问题仍然值得学者们进一步反思与研究。本期热点笔谈组织了有关反对恐怖主义专题,希望通过学者们对反对恐怖主义、全球法制建设问题的进一步研究,为学界提供研究反对恐怖主义问题的不同视角,也希望对我国反对恐怖主义决策的选择、制度的完善有所裨益。     

反恐与海上能源通道安全的维护

"9·11"事件以后,反对恐怖主义逐渐成为国际社会关注的焦点问题,各国均通过加入国际公约、完善国内法来打击恐怖主义,有关恐怖主义的一些热点问题都得到了深入的探讨。但是,如何完善国际法律制度,如何在打击恐怖主义活动的同时坚持国际法基本原则,如何协调各国对恐怖主义活动的认定及惩治方面的分歧等问题仍然值得学者们进一步反思与研究。本期热点笔谈组织了有关反对恐怖主义专题,希望通过学者们对反对恐怖主义、全球法制建设问题的进一步研究,为学界提供研究反对恐怖主义问题的不同视角,也希望对我国反对恐怖主义决策的选择、制度的完善有所裨益。     

反恐战争与国际人道法

“9·11”事件以后,反对恐怖主义逐渐成为国际社会关注的焦点问题,各国均通过加入国际公约、完善国内法来打击恐怖主义,有关恐怖主义的一些热点问题都得到了深入的探讨。但是,如何完善国际法律制度,如何在打击恐怖主义活动的同时坚持国际法基本原则,如何协调各国对恐怖主义活动的认定及惩治方面的分歧等问题仍然值得学者们进一步反思与研究。本期热点笔谈组织了有关反对恐怖主义专题,希望通过学者们对反对恐怖主义、全球法制建设问题的进一步研究,为学界提供研究反对恐怖主义问题的不同视角,也希望对我国反对恐怖主义决策的选择、制度的完善有所裨益。     

惩治、防范恐怖主义犯罪的反思与应对

国际社会打击惩治恐怖主义犯罪存在诸多问题:法律理念和法律规范的差异、狭隘的主权和民族利益观的影响、文化冲突的催化、超国家机构的作用有待完善、国内立法存在缺陷。对此,我们可以通过以下措施应对:逐步淡化主权意识;加强惩治恐怖主义犯罪的国际合作;减少恐怖主义犯罪产生的文化原因;尽快将国际恐怖主义犯罪纳入国际刑事法院的管辖范围;采取各种措施完善国内反恐立法。     

Cyber terrorism challenges: The need for a global response to a multi-jurisdictional crime

With the widespread concerns about cyber terrorism and the frequent use of the term “cyber terrorism” at the present time, many international organisations have made efforts to combat this threat. Since cyber terrorism is an international crime, local regulations alone are not able to defend against such attacks; they require a transnational response. Therefore, an attacked country will invoke international law to seek justice for any damage caused, through the exercise of universal jurisdiction. Without the aid of international organisations, it is difficult to prevent cyber terrorism. At the same time, international organisations determine which state court, or international court, has the authority to settle a dispute. The objective of this paper is to analyse and review the effectiveness and sufficiency of the current global responses to cyber terrorism through the exercise of international jurisdiction. This article also touches upon the notion of cyber terrorism as a transnational crime and an international threat; thus, national regulations alone cannot prevent it. The need for an international organisation to prevent and defend nations from cyber terrorism attacks is pressing. This paper finds that, as cyber terrorism is a transnational crime, it should be subjected to universal jurisdiction through multinational cooperation, and this would be the most suitable method to counter future transnational crimes such as cyber terrorism.     

析国家作为恐怖主义的主体问题

恐怖主义主体是否包含国家的问题是困惑恐怖主义法律定义的一个现实障碍。对此问题,发展中国家与西方发达国家认识不一,从历史看,国家恐怖主义是个人或组织团体恐怖主义的根源,而且国家恐怖主义的危害与当量是个人及团体恐怖主义所无法比拟的;学者的学说、国家和联合国内的反国家恐怖主义的努力也说明了国家恐怖主义犯罪的存在;国家的恐怖主义刑事责任追究可依公约以特殊方式进行;国际关系与国际政治行为的民主化与文明化,也要求坚持公理、正义与法律,要求反国家恐怖主义。     

略论反恐多边条约的国内实施

国际恐怖(主义)犯罪是目前日炽的一种国际犯罪,国际社会非常重视对恐怖(主义)犯罪的惩治、预防和打击,缔结了一系列反恐多边条约。反恐多边条约的实施主要是缔约国的实施(即国内层面上的实施),可以分为直接实施和间接实施两种模式。反恐多边条约的国内实施于惩治和预防国际恐怖主义犯罪发挥了重要作用。反恐多边条约在我国得到了很好的实施,但在实施过程中仍存在某些弊端或不足,亟须完善,关键是要尽快制定一部专门的反恐特别法。     

Exploring officer views of community policing in counterterrorism

Abstract

Recently there has been increased emphasis on actionable intelligence in counterterrorism. Building from the process-based model of regulation, police chiefs and scholars generally agree that community policing has promise in this regard. Yet, it is not clear the extent to which police officers concur. Since officers are in a position to implement community policing practices, it is important to understand variants in officer-level support. Using data collected from 741 officers in three departments, this project explores officer-level views of community policing’s utility to address terrorism and more common crimes. Overall, officers view community policing as appropriate to address both common crimes and terrorism. Results suggest that department-level policy itself is not the key driver of support. Rather, an officer’s own experience with community policing and support for the practice in general determine views on community policing in counterterrorism. Results also highlight the importance of comparative research across departments.     

The Impact of Technology and Communications upon International and Transnational Terrorism

The purpose of this inquiry is to examine the nature of terrorism, primarily in European and Western industrial nations. Specifically the article (1) examines the impact that has resulted from technological advances in communication and weapons and (2) discusses the necessity of international cooperation in the effort to defeat terrorism. The article documents that terrorism is a serious threat to Western democracies including the United States as well as an international threat. The conclusion of the article is that it has become more difficult to counter terrorism due to technological advances which have delivered greater destructive power into the hands of a few fanatics. The primary technological effects discussed are (1) those relating to communication which has enabled terrorists to establish a “world-wide network” and (2) the addition of toxins and nuclear weapons to the arsenal of the terrorist. As an international problem, however, the difficulty of countering terrorism is not rooted in the technological sophistication of the terrorist but in international disputes about the question, “what is terrorism”. Nations appear to be unable to mount an international assault against terrorism due to the great difficulty of arriving at a commonly accepted definition of terrorism. This article discusses the obstacles to defining terrorism encountered by the international community and the role that bilateral and multinational agreements have played in countering terrorism.     

Measures and mechanisms to strengthen international cooperation among prosecution services

International cooperation among prosecution services is an urgent necessity and cooperation mechanisms are evolving rapidly to keep pace with new technologies. Their evolution over the last decade or so reflects the new determination of States to work more closely with each other to face the growing threats of organized crime, corruption and terrorism. Because of the dynamic nature of these crimes, Member States must constantly refine and perfect their strategies. Yet, in spite of the considerable progress achieved at the bilateral, regional, and international levels, international cooperation in the investigation and prosecution of serious crimes still needs considerable strengthening. This paper reviews some key issues, trends, and innovative practices with respect to both formal and informal international cooperation in criminal matters. It considers some of the practical issues that have recently emerged during the implementation of these measures and strategies as well as some of the solutions that are being advanced.     

论国际犯罪与国内犯罪的关系

国际犯罪是指由国际法创设或者推动因而被国际社会普遍确定为犯罪、严重危害国际社会共同利益的行为,跨国性、涉外性、违反公约性都不是国际犯罪的基本特征。国际犯罪不是从国内犯罪发展而来的,它们是两个互不隶属的并列范畴,是"犯罪"这一共同上位概念之下的子概念,从渊源上讲,两者基本上分属国内法与国际法两大法律体系。国际犯罪与国内犯罪之间有明确的界限,主要体现在犯罪危害的性质、针对的法律关系和法律制定者不同三方面。     

Precursor Crimes to Terrorism and the Local Prosecutor's Role in Disruption

Much of the discussion of terrorism prosecution focuses on the federal judicial system or the use of military tribunals. The passage of state anti‐terrorism legislation in response to September 11, 2001, raises the issue of what role local prosecutors might play in responding to terrorism. Of particular interest is the role that local prosecutors have in identifying offenders who have committed crimes that may be precursors to terrorism and how they gather and share information. Using data from a survey of the 112 largest prosecutors’ offices in the country and information gained from case studies, this study explores the local prosecutor's role in responding to terrorism, how they are involved in the identification and prosecution of precursor crimes, and the overlap between federal and state prosecution.     

The Legacy of Nuremberg

The Nuremberg trial, later followed by the Tokyo trial, is amilestone in the development of international law. For the firsttime in modern history, the leaders of a defeated country wereindicted for committing serious crimes jeopardizing the basesof peaceful coexistence among individual human beings and peoples:crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity.German objections criticizing crimes against peace as havingno legal basis and, therefore, contradicting the principle nullumcrimen sine lege, were justified. To date, the legal positionhas not changed, since the international community has consistentlyrefrained from including aggression in the lists of offencesprosecutable under the statutes of the currently existing internationalcriminal courts. However, no well-founded objections could beraised against the indictment for war crimes and crimes againsthumanity. Concerning offences of such abhorrent nature, no offendercan invoke nullum crimen that protects only legitimate confidence.To hold to account political leaders, directly under internationallaw, for criminal actions organized and ordered by them is anecessity in a world where the basic axioms of the internationalsystem have changed: state sovereignty has lost its absolutecharacter and is counterbalanced by the requirements of humanrights protection. The emergence of international criminal justiceembodies the concept of international community in the mostpalpable manner. Fortunately, some of the defects of the Nurembergtrial have been remedied today: no arbitrary picking and choosingof the accused by the prosecution is possible before the InternationalCriminal Court; prosecutors as well as the judges of all existingjudicial bodies are carefully selected by the internationalcommunity with a view to avoiding any illegitimate bias.     

A rational jurisdiction for cyber terrorism

Cyberspace is a cross-national world that transcends geopolitical national borders. Jurisdiction is the focal point for any dispute arising in the international arena, because it determines which state court has the authority to settle a dispute. The objective of this paper is to analyse territorial and universal jurisdiction principles which can be specifically related to cyberspace to determine which of them is best suited to providing the appropriate jurisdiction in combating cyber terrorism and how conflicts arising between them can be settled. The transnational nature of cyber terrorism offences leads to jurisdictional complexity, thereby investigation and prosecution is difficult. Lack of harmonisation in legislating among countries leads to difficulty in investigation and prosecution of cyber terrorism offences. This paper notes that universal jurisdiction is the most feasible and effective method to deter cyber terrorism.