What is violence against women? Defining and measuring the problem: a response to Dean Kilpatrick

This article discusses (a) the relationship between the reemergence of the women's movement in the 1970s and the current field of violence against women; (b) the role voluntary associations and social activism play in shaping social institutions, including the institution of academic scholarship; (c) the need to broaden our definition of violence against women to include nonviolent acts, such as stalking and emotional abuse; (d) the need to study the interrelationships among various forms of violence and abuse, including violence and abuse experienced as a minor and violence and abuse experienced as an adult; (e) the importance of using precise language when reporting research findings; (f) the importance of using a multiple definition/measurement approach when conducting research on violence against women; and (g) the need for comprehensive research on violence against women that takes into account the various types of violent and abusive behaviors experienced by women over their lifetimes.     

Epidemiological Considerations in the Conceptualization and Utilization of “Prevalence” and “Incidence Rate” in Family Violence Research: A Reply to Brownridge and Halli (1999)

Brownridge and Halli (1999) have argued that the literature on family violence is beset by confusion in the conceptualization and utilization of incidence and prevalence terminology. Although we basically agree with the authors' diagnosis of the field, definitions of prevalence and incidence that they propose as gold standards are sometimes discrepant with established concepts in epidemiology. Drawing on the epidemiologic literature, we present more solidly based and operational definitions of these terms and try to understand the meaning of each measure. The same confusion surrounding use of prevalence and incidence also reigns in child maltreatment research, as revealed in our review of major studies. We address some of the main but often overlooked issues associated with use of epidemiologic measures in an area of social research such as family violence and make some proposals.     

Attitudes Towards Violence Against Women In Men of South Asian Ancestry: Are Acculturation and Gender Role Attitudes Important Factors?

The purpose of this study was to examine attitudes toward violence against women in men of South Asian ancestry. Studies conducted on other cultural groups have examined separately the influence of gender role attitudes and acculturation on violence against women. In the current study, we proposed that acculturation and attitudes towards violence against women were related through the mediation of gender role attitudes. One hundred male South Asian university students were administered questionnaires that measured their acculturation, gender role attitudes and attitudes towards wife beating. Results indicated that gender role attitudes fully mediated the relationship between acculturation and attitudes towards violence against women. This means that lower acculturation is only related to higher acceptance of wife assault because lower levels of acculturation are related to more restrictive and conservative beliefs about the roles of men and women.     

Domestic Violence Against Women: Systematic Review of Prevalence Studies

To systematically review the worldwide evidence on the prevalence of domestic violence against women, to evaluate the quality of studies, and to account for variation in prevalence between studies, using consistent definitions and explicit, rigorous methods. Systematic review of prevalence studies on domestic violence against women. Literature searches of 6 databases were undertaken for the period 1995 to 2006. Medline, Embase, Cinahl, ASSIA, ISI, and International Bibliography of the Social Sciences were searched, supplemented by hand searching of the reference lists from studies retrieved and specialized interdisciplinary journals on violence. A total of 134 studies in English on the prevalence of domestic violence against women, including women aged 18 to 65 years, but excluding women with specific disabilities or diseases, containing primary, empirical research data, were included in the systematic review. Studies were scored on eight pre-determined criteria and stratified according to the total quality score. The majority of the sudies were conducted in North America (41%), followed by Europe (20%). 56% of studies were population-based, and 17% were carried out either in primary or community health care settings. There was considerable heterogeneity both between and within geographical locations, health care settings, and study quality The prevalence of lifetime domestic violence varies from 1.9% in Washington, US, to 70% in Hispanic Latinas in Southeast US. Only 12% scored a maximum of 8 on our quality criteria, with 27% studies scored 7, and 17% scored 6. The mean lifetime prevalence of all types of violence was found to be highest in studies conducted in psychiatric and obstetric/gynecology clinics. Results of this review emphasize that violence against women has reached epidemic proportions in many societies. Accurate measurement of the prevalence of domestic violence remains problematic and further culturally sensitive research is required to develop more effective preventive policies and programs.     

Definitions of and beliefs about wife abuse among ultra-Orthodox Jewish men from Israel

This article presents a study conducted among 148 men from the ultra-Orthodox Jewish community in Israel. A self-administered questionnaire was utilized to examine their definitions of and beliefs about wife abuse. The definitions provided by the majority of the participants were highly consistent with definitions that are accepted in the professional literature. The majority of participants tended to view wife abuse as unjustified and held violent husbands responsible for their behavior. They were also in favor of helping women who were abused. At the same time, however, some participants showed a tendency to blame women for violence against them and indicated that the reasons why women stay with husbands who are abusive can be attributed more to external factors than to her internal situation. Substantial amounts of the variance in the participants' definitions of and beliefs about wife abuse can be explained by the extent of their patriarchal ideology. Limitations and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Autonomy,Dependence or Culture: Examining the Impact of Resources and Socio-cultural Processes on Attitudes Towards Intimate Partner Violence in Ghana,Africa

Despite the high levels of domestic violence (intimate partner violence) against African women, tests of competing theories on why the practice is common in the region are quite limited. This study evaluates the effects of resources and cultural factors on attitudes Africans hold about the acceptability of gendered violence, and specifically wife beating (battering). Answers to these questions are relevant to the discourse on intimate partner violence, at least, as pertains to male-dominated societies such as those found in Africa. Drawing on national data from the Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, we explore these linkages in an African context. Our findings suggest that egalitarian decision-making and equal household contributions are associated with a reduced acceptance of abusive actions toward women. We suggest that new questions must be asked concerning the present and future role of men and women within households and the community. We share equally in the conceptualization, data analysis, and writing of the paper. We thank Drs. Nancy B. Miller and Cheryl Elman for their helpful comments on this article.     

From Victim to Offender: The Effects of Male Initiated Violence on Women Arrested for Using Intimate Partner Violence

A number of theorists posit that most women who are arrested for using violence against their intimate partners are in-fact victims of IPV themselves and should be treated as such. However, in this population of women IPV arrestees empirical investigation has yet to explore how physical and emotional victimization experiences are associated with arrest related factors, propensity to be abusive or attitude toward using relationship violence. The current study explores these factors finding no difference in arrest factors between women who (a) deny abuse, (b) report rare/occasional abuse and (c) report frequent/very frequent abuse. However, mixed results were found with regard to participants’ responses on scales measuring propensity to be abusive and attitudes about using violence in marriage. Theoretical and practical related issues are addressed.     

Top 10 greatest "hits": important findings and future directions for intimate partner violence research

In this article, the author highlights her choice of the 10 most important recent findings from the intimate partner violence research literature, which include (a) the creation of the Conflict Tactics Scale; (b) the finding that violent acts are most often perpetrated by intimates; (c) a series of findings that indicate that women also engage in intimate partner violence; (d) the finding that intimate partner violence typically evolves out of relationship dissatisfaction; (e) the finding that there are different subtypes of domestically violent men; (f) physiological measures that have added to our knowledge of intimate partner violence; (g) the evolving intergenerational transmission of violence theory; (h) the finding that verbal abuse, neglect, and psychological abuse need to be studied alongside physical violence; (i) research on leaving abusive relationships that may inform policy about sheltering battered women; and (j) the finding that alcohol plays an important role in the production of intimate partner violence. In the conclusion, the author describes a dyadic cycle of violence that may characterize some abusive couples. She also argues for a multimodal theory that links findings obtained from individual, relationship, intergenerational, gender-specific, and cultural perspectives.     

Gender inequality, violence against women, and fear: a cross-national test of the feminist theory of violence against women

This article presents a cross-national test of the feminist theory of violence against women. Combining data from the International Crime Victims Survey (ICVS) with United Nations statistics, the findings support the theory. Specifically, the results indicate that the educational and occupational status of women in a country is related to the prevalence of sexual violence against women. In countries where the status of women is low, prevalence of sexual violence against women tends to be higher. In turn, sexual violence is related to higher levels of fear among women relative to men. In comparison, in countries where the status of women is high, sexual violence against women is lower. The findings of this study add confirmation to the argument that we need to look beyond individual level variables to understand and develop strategies for reducing violence against and fear among women.     

Perceptions of gender-based violence around public toilets in Mumbai slums

ABSTRACT

The lack of adequate public toilets and associated gender-based violence around their use is a matter of concern in many developing countries and has recently come to the forefront of the political agenda and media discourse in India. Previous research suggests the absence of lighting, inadequate provision of basic sanitation, poor design and siting of toilets, and lack of police presence in slums as facilitators for violence against women. However, the evidence is often anecdotal and usually unsystematic. The exact extent of crimes against women in these circumstances is unknown because unsurprisingly women in slums rarely report crimes to the police, either due to fear or lack of access. The research reported in this paper gauges women’s perception and experience of crime and violence around different types of public toilets in two slums areas in Mumbai, India. A survey of 142 households indicated that although women’s fear of crime was higher than their actual experience, the perception of insecurity was not uniform for all toilet types and locations. Findings also indicated that there was at least minimal provision of toilet facilities, basic security features, water, and electric supply in the research sites. Furthermore, greater police presence and previous contact with the police in one slum area led for greater confidence in reporting offences to the police as compared to the other. Overall, better provision of lighting and regular police patrols were considered by a majority of those surveyed to reduce fear of crime around toilets.     

The elevated risk for non-lethal post-separation violence in Canada: a comparison of separated, divorced, and married women

The purpose of the study was to shed light on the potentially differing dynamics of violence against separated and divorced women by their ex-husbands and violence against married women by their current husbands. Using a nationally representative sample of 7,369 heterosexual women from Cycle 13 of Statistics Canada's General Social Survey, available risk markers were examined in the context of a nested ecological framework. Separated women reported nine times the prevalence of violence and divorced women reported about four times the prevalence of violence compared with married women. The strongest predictors of violence against married women, namely, patriarchal domination, sexual jealousy, and possessiveness, were not significant predictors of violence against separated and divorced women. This suggested that post-separation violence is a complex phenomenon the dynamics of which can be affected by much more than domination and ownership.     

A mixed methods study of participant reaction to domestic violence research in Jordan

Research on domestic violence against women has increased considerably over the past few decades. Most participants in such studies find the exercise worthwhile and of greater benefit than emotional cost; however, systematic examination of participant reaction to research on violence is considerably lacking, especially in the Middle East region. This study begins to fill this gap by examining women's reactions to domestic violence research in Jordan and whether a personal history of violence is associated with unfavorable experiences. This sequential exploratory mixed methods study included 17 focus group discussions (FGD) with women in Amman followed by a survey conducted in reproductive health clinics throughout the country (pilot n = 30; survey n = 517). Open coding was used to identify the theme related to participant reaction in the FGD data. This construct was further examined by the subsequent survey that included dichotomous questions inquiring whether the respondent thought the study questions were important and whether they were angry or felt resentment as a result of the survey. One open-ended question on the survey provided additional qualitative data on the theme that was combined with the FGD data. Themes identified in the qualitative data pertained to expressions of gratitude and comments on the survey's value. Findings of this study indicate that Jordanian women's responses to the research process are similar to women currently represented by the extant literature in that a vast majority of its participants felt that the study was important (95%) and it did not evoke anger or resentment (96%). Many even found the study to be useful to them personally or to society. Among those who had a negative emotional reaction, most still found the research to be important. This study's findings highlight the safety and potential benefits of ethically conducted violence research.     

Women’s Knowledge of the Domestic Violence Legislation in Erbil,Iraq and their Response to Spousal Violence

This study assessed the knowledge of 82 married women about existing legislations and law enforcement structure in Iraqi Kurdistan region to combat violence against women and women’s response to spousal violence. A female physician interviewed the participants using a specially designed questionnaire. The women possessed good knowledge about the presence of legislation (76.8 %) and related law enforcement structure (70.7 % to 74.4 %) to combat violence against women, but they lacked adequate knowledge about how to contact the law enforcement agencies. Women’s response to spousal violence primarily included self-defense (37.8 %) or keeping silent (26.8 %), rather than seeking justice (4.9 %). Women’s educational status was positively associated with reporting violence to police (52.1 % vs 29.4 %, p = 0.041) and the health staff (62.5 % vs 35.3 %, p = 0.015). Further research is needed to explore the reasons behind women’s poor knowledge of the details of the existing law enforcement structure and women’s reluctance to seek justice.     

Sexual violence perpetrated against women in India: the role of forensic evidence

ABSTRACT

In response to the upsurge in acts of sexual violence against women in India, Parliament passed the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act of 2013, amending existing statutes and rules of evidence relating to crimes of sexual violence and the practices of forensic professionals in the country. While a step in the right direction, this law paid little attention to forensic evidence in sexual violence cases, which can provide a more objective, scientific account of events, aid in the reconstruction of crimes, and help strengthen cases against perpetrators. The objectives of this article are twofold: to raise awareness for the need for a more prominent role of forensic evidence in sexual violence cases and to recommend ways to establish uniform and comprehensive policies and procedures on the collection and preservation of forensic evidence in order to ensure that cases of sexual violence against women are heard in Indian courts.     

THE SOCIAL ECOLOGY OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN*

Despite more than three decades of research on the topic of violence against women, the relative contribution of individual, family and community factors to victimization risk remains unknown. We use self‐report data from the Area‐Identified National Crime Victimization Survey to study the correlates of stranger, nonstranger and intimate‘partner violence against women. Regardless of victim‐offender relationship, we find that the risk for victimization is highest among young, single women with children, particularly those who have lived in the current home for relatively shorter periods. Area family and age composition appear to have stronger direct relationships with women's violence than poverty or racial composition measures. We also find there to be more similarities than differences in the individual, family, and community correlates of stranger, nonstranger and intimate partner violence. We discuss these findings as part of the growing body of multilevel literature on violence and on violence against women.     

Behavioral and Attitudinal Factors Differentiating Male Intimate Partner Violence Perpetrators With and Without a History of Childhood Family Violence

This study utilized a sample of men (N?=?340) charged with assault against a female partner to assess differences among IPV perpetrators with and without a history of childhood family violence on factors such as angry, controlling and violent behaviors, substance use related behaviors, and attitudes towards women. Over two-thirds of the sample reported childhood exposure to maltreatment or witnessing IPV. Chi-square analyses and t-tests indicated significant differences between perpetrators with and without a history of family violence on eight of eleven measures. Findings suggest perpetrators with a family violence history more strongly endorse ideas that present women and feminine attributes in a negative light. This research demonstrates that while exposure to family violence during childhood is not necessary for IPV to occur, its presence may be a marker for more severe attitudinal and behavioral problems. Findings highlight the need for primary prevention efforts and can inform secondary prevention strategies.     

Rethinking responses to 'domestic violence' in Australian indigenous communities

The United Nations' response to violence against women was to adopt the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women in December, 1993 that recognized indigenous women to be especially vulnerable to violence. Australia's initiatives during the 1990s included criminal justice reform, crisis service provision and community-based mediation programmes that have not proved altogether helpful for indigenous women. Given the intractable nature of violence against indigenous women, this paper holds that community-based programmes cannot work in isolation from criminal justice intervention. An approach to male-to-female violence, that views the criminal justice system not only as a means of punishment, but also as an institution for expressing human rights norms is advocated.     

Domestic Violence and its Relationship with Quality of Life in Iranian Women of Reproductive Age

Violence against women is a major concern for public health. This study was conducted in Tabriz (Iran) to investigate domestic violence and its relationship with quality of life in women of reproductive age. This cross-sectional study was conducted on 558 women selected through a two-stage cluster sampling method. Data were collected by Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) and Short Form Health Survey (SF-36) questionnaires. Negotiation-emotional violence had the highest prevalence (93 %) and severe injury (12 %) had the lowest. There was a significant inverse correlation between chronicity of psychological, physical, sexual and injury domains of domestic violence and quality of life and a significant positive correlation between negotiation-emotional domain and quality of life. There is a significant relationship between domestic violence and quality of life. So, regarding the importance of empowering women and improving their quality of life, we must help eliminate violence against women.     

Examining the perceptions of Zimbabwean women about the domestic violence act

The purpose of this study is to qualitatively examine how Christian women from Zimbabwe perceived the effectiveness of the Domestic Violence Act in preventing and responding to domestic violence. The study also aims to understand the unique social, cultural, and religious context of the participants that affect their attitudes and beliefs about this legislation. The findings of the study are based on an analysis of qualitative interviews. The women were recruited from the Roman Catholic Church (RCC); Reformed Church in Zimbabwe (RCZ); Methodist Church in Zimbabwe (MCZ); Zimbabwe Assembly of God Africa (ZAOGA), and Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) in the Masvingo urban area. Most of the participants expressed confidence in the Act, saying that it goes a long way in curbing domestic violence. The participants who indicated lack of confidence in the Act argued that it is contrary to the teachings of their Christian denominations. The study also revealed that lack of confidence in the Act is due to lack of knowledge about the legislation. In particular, many were unaware of the fact that physical, psychological, and emotional abuse constitutes justification for a protection order that can remain in force when a protected person is living with the perpetrator. The article discusses these findings in relation to domestic violence in other cultures and countries and recommends raising awareness of the importance of this useful piece of legislation.     

Opinions and Experiences of Primary Healthcare Providers Regarding Violence against Women: a Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies

The aim of this systematic review of qualitative studies is to explore the opinions and experiences of primary care providers regarding violence against women. Structured searches were conducted in nine bibliographic databases (March 2016). Study identification, critical appraisal (using the CASP tool), and analyses (thematic synthesis) were conducted. 46 qualitative studies were selected. Three main themes were identified: 1) Defining violence against women and its causes; 2) Awareness of violence against women and disclosure, with subthemes: 2.1.) Barriers experienced by primary care providers; 2.2) Facilitators for providing appropriate help; 3) Actions taken by providers to help women. Violence against women was generally considered as an unacceptable act with important health consequences. Barriers to address violence against women included organizational factors, providers’ subjective feelings and perceived role, and providers’ perceptions about women facing violence against women. Facilitators included a trusting relationship with women, attentive non-judgmental listening, participate in the community, team-work and continuing education. Providing emotional support and offering information about resources were the main actions taken by primary care providers. Women-centred care, respecting women’s decision making processes and a biopsychosocial approach may provide direction to more compassionate and supportive care while strengthening primary healthcare response.