Combined Statistical Analyses of Forensic Evidence in Sexual Assault: A Case Report and Brief Review of the Literature

DNA analysis has been widely used in the forensic field in order to contribute to identifying the perpetrator of a crime. Forensic investigation in sexual assaults usually focuses on locating and identifying biological fluids, followed by DNA analysis. The identification of certain compounds present in condoms can be useful to reconstruct the occurred event, especially in cases of sexual assaults where the DNA analysis did not show the presence of a male profile and where RNA analysis did not show the presence of sperm markers. Herein we describe the case of a woman reporting to be victim of sexual assault, who was not able to provide accurate information concerning the dynamics of the event; she remembered only forced penile–vaginal penetration by a single perpetrator. We performed short tandem repeat (STR) analyses and mRNA typing for forensic genetics testing on vaginal and rectal swabs collected on the victim, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) followed by chromatographic analyses for the detection of condom compounds on the same swabs. The STR analysis showed only the victim’s genetic profile, and RNA analysis showed only the presence of vaginal and skin markers. In this situation, the identification of condom compounds residues on vaginal swabs became important as it complemented other collected evidences allowing the Court to reconstruct the events. A proposal of likelihood ratio (LR) calculation for the assessment of the weight of evidence in this case is described.     

Facial soft tissue thickness in northwest Indian adults

In order to reconstruct the face from a bare skull, the facial soft tissue thickness (FSTT) was determined at 29 standard anthropological landmarks by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 173 male and 127 female adult subjects of northwest Indian origin. Repeatability and accuracy of the measurements was assessed by paired t-test and 95% confidence intervals. A stepwise discriminant function analysis selected nine landmarks for better sex classification in FSTT measurements. The thickness of soft tissue was different from that described in the literature and reported for samples from other countries. A correlation between skinfold thickness and body mass index (BMI) with that of FSTT was observed. The data of facial soft tissue thickness will help forensic experts in reconstructing the face from a skull for identification purposes.     

An appraisal of plastic reconstruction of the external nose

The association between the morphometric dimensions of the external nose, including the thickness of the soft tissues, and various craniometric measurements has been examined on a sample of lateral radiographs of 154 males and 199 females from Vienna, Austria. In addition, the influence of age on morphometric dimensions and the soft tissue cover was tested. Multiple stepwise regression analysis revealed that nasal height and nasal length are best predicted by the dimensions of the skull, whereas nasal depth and the thickness of the soft tissues is greatly influenced by age. In males, over 50% of the variance of nasal height and nasal length were accounted for by the height of the bony nose and the prominence of the ossa nasalia, and in females it was about 40%. Although the thickness of the soft tissue is dependent on exogenous factors, such as nutrition, mimicry, and so forth, the dimensions of the bony nose apparently also influence the skin depths to some extent. High and prominent noses were found to have a thinner layer of soft tissue over the nasal bones than short and less prominent ones. It thus seems as if there is a tendency of the soft tissue cover to adjust to disharmonies of the bony profile.     

Facial Soft Tissue Thickness Among Three Skeletal Classes in Adult Pakistani Subjects

Different facial reconstruction methods rely on the average facial soft tissue thickness values provided in previous studies. Facial soft tissue thickness is influenced by the age, sex, and ethnicity of the individual. The aim of the present study was to determine facial soft tissue thickness of adult Pakistani subjects with different facial morphology. A total of 166 subjects were categorized into three skeletal classes (based on convex, straight, or concave facial profile) employing the classification system used in orthodontics. Facial soft tissue thickness was determined at ten midline points on lateral cephalograms. Significant differences in facial soft tissue thickness were present at glabella, labrale superius, stomion, and labiomentale in males and at labrale superius, labrale inferius, labiomentale, and pogonion in females among different skeletal classes. The current study suggests that the skull morphology-related variations in facial soft tissue thickness should be considered during facial reconstruction to achieve accurate results.     

Street youths’ control imbalance and soft and hard drug use

In his control balance theory Charles Tittle maintained that under favorable conditions unbalanced control ratios will lead to different forms of deviance. The type of deviance chosen is argued to depend on the degree of the control imbalance and the desirability the offense presents as a method of altering the imbalance. Utilizing a sample of homeless street youth this study examined if different types of control balance ratios were associated with hard and soft drug use. The findings revealed that control balance surpluses and control balance deficits were both related to hard and soft drug use but that these relationships were significantly stronger for hard drug use. Further, provocation and self-control were significant predictors of hard but not soft drug use while drug using peers predicted soft drug use but not hard drug use. Parental drug use, perceptions of risk, and values supportive of illegal behavior predicted both forms of drug use. Results are discussed and directions for further research and theoretical refinement are offered.     

Age and sex related measurement of craniofacial soft tissue thickness and nasal profile in the Chinese population

The purpose of this study was to acquire accurate data of craniofacial soft tissue thickness (CFSTT) and nasal profile in Chinese people of Han population. A total of 31 anatomical landmarks and 4 nasal profile parameters were determined using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 425 subjects (233 males and 192 females). In the present study, the mean CFSTT values of male subjects exceeded those of female subjects at most anatomical landmarks except at seven (22.58%) and 6 out of the 7 landmarks were bilateral anatomical landmark points. The age-related and sex × age interactions were found to be statistically significant at all landmarks. Significant differences were found in the nasal profile data of males and females, and 15 out of 20 different groups had significant differences between sexes, and the mean values of nasal length, nasal height, nasal depth and nasal breadth in males were all greater than those in females. Furthermore, both CFSTT and nasal profile showed good correlation with age. The thickest CFSTT of male and female were found at the respective ages of 45-59 and 35-44, and the nasal profile becomes more constant after 24 years of age. CFSTT of the lower part of the face shows greater variation compared to the upper part, so special care needs to be applied when reconstructing the lower portion of the face. Our data on CFSTT and nasal profile for the Chinese Xi'an Han population is important in understanding craniofacial characteristics of the Chinese population and might be potentially helpful in forensic identification.     

The Race to Punish in American Schools: Class and Race Predictors of Punitive School-Crime Control

Despite the general agreement that US schools have become increasingly punitive since the 1980s, researchers are uncertain about what types of schools use tough-on-crime measures. Some assert that punitive control is concentrated in poor, predominantly ethnic minority schools. Governing-through-crime scholars argue that US schools with mostly middle-class and white students are also punitive, but in less harsh ways using soft surveillance techniques. Relying on data from large, stratified samples of middle and secondary US public schools, we found that high rates of ethnic minority enrollment predicted heavy reliance on law enforcement and security personnel. As rates of student poverty increased, use of soft surveillance techniques as well as reporting students to the police significantly increased. Implications for governing-through-crime, racial control, and reproduction of inequalities theories are discussed.     

The use of a 3-D laser scanner to document ephemeral evidence at crime scenes and postmortem examinations

Proper documentation of physical evidence at both crimes scenes and postmortem examination is crucial for downstream analysis, interpretation, and presentation in court. Ephemeral or transient evidence poses particular challenges to investigators, as its very nature renders it difficult or impossible to seize and maintain in its original physical state. The use of a hand-held three-dimensional (3-D) laser scanner is proposed to capture and document such evidence, both in the field and at autopsy. Advantages of the scanner over traditional means of documentation such as photography or casting include the ability to obtain measurements in all dimensions, the ability to reconstruct missing elements, and the ease with which generated images can be interpreted by the jury at trial. Potential scenarios warranting the use of the scanner are identified, and the limitations of its use are discussed.     

Trace evidence--the invisible witness

This paper reviews the use of microscopic trace evidence in actual casework. Three cases are discussed in which the microscopic analysis of trace evidence was used to: associate the people, places, and things involved in the incident; reconstruct the event; and describe the occupation(s) of the participants. Each case is discussed in detail from the initial stages of the investigation through the use of the trace evidence during the investigation and at the trial.     

Combined target factor analysis and Bayesian soft-classification of interference-contaminated samples: Forensic Fire Debris Analysis

A Bayesian soft classification method combined with target factor analysis (TFA) is described and tested for the analysis of fire debris data. The method relies on analysis of the average mass spectrum across the chromatographic profile (i.e., the total ion spectrum, TIS) from multiple samples taken from a single fire scene. A library of TIS from reference ignitable liquids with assigned ASTM classification is used as the target factors in TFA. The class-conditional distributions of correlations between the target and predicted factors for each ASTM class are represented by kernel functions and analyzed by Bayesian decision theory. The soft classification approach assists in assessing the probability that ignitable liquid residue from a specific ASTM E1618 class, is present in a set of samples from a single fire scene, even in the presence of unspecified background contributions from pyrolysis products. The method is demonstrated with sample data sets and then tested on laboratory-scale burn data and large-scale field test burns. The overall performance achieved in laboratory and field test of the method is approximately 80% correct classification of fire debris samples.     

Facial soft tissue thickness in skeletal type I Japanese children

Facial reconstruction techniques used in forensic anthropology require knowledge of the facial soft tissue thickness of each race if facial features are to be reconstructed correctly. If this is inaccurate, so also will be the reconstructed face. Knowledge of differences by age and sex are also required. Therefore, when unknown human skeletal remains are found, the forensic anthropologist investigates for race, sex, and age, and for other variables of relevance. Cephalometric X-ray images of living persons can help to provide this information. They give an approximately 10% enlargement from true size and can demonstrate the relationship between soft and hard tissue. In the present study, facial soft tissue thickness in Japanese children was measured at 12 anthropological points using X-ray cephalometry in order to establish a database for facial soft tissue thickness. This study of both boys and girls, aged from 6 to 18 years, follows a previous study of Japanese female children only, and focuses on facial soft tissue thickness in only one skeletal type. Sex differences in thickness of tissue were found from 12 years of age upwards. The study provides more detailed and accurate measurements than past reports of facial soft tissue thickness, and reveals the uniqueness of the Japanese child's facial profile.     

Trajectory reconstructions. I: Trace evidence in flight

This paper reviews the use of trace evidence recovered from spent bullets in helping to establish trajectories. The use of information derived from such trace evidence combined with that from geometrical techniques of trajectory reconstruction and other data is discussed. Five cases are reviewed in which the analysis of trace evidential materials adhering to bullets was used to help reconstruct the event.     

Descriptive morphological features of the nose--an assessment of their importance for plastic reconstruction

On a series of lateral radiographs of 154 males and 199 females from Vienna, Austria, 3 qualitative morphological features of the external nose were recorded. Their relationship to craniometric dimensions, age, and the contour of the nasal bones was tested using Wilks' stepwise discriminant analyses. All tests gave significant results at the 1% probability level, but, overall, correct assignment of the features to their categories did not exceed 61%. Although height dimensions were used for discrimination in females, the prominence of the nasal bones and age appeared to be the most important discriminating variables in both sexes. Analyses further revealed that the nasal bridge and the direction of the nasal septum are highly correlated, whereas the tip of the nose seemed to be independent; this may reflect the dependence of the latter on exogenous influences, especially nutrition. It was demonstrated that the profile line of the external nose does not follow its underlying bony structures, that is, the profile line of the nasal bones. Thus, the present study showed that obtaining soft tissue thicknesses alone is not sufficient for successful facial reconstruction, but that a more holistic approach should be used to elucidate the relationships between soft tissue cover and the underlying hyaline and bony structures.     

An economised craniofacial identification system

It has been attempted to develop an economised craniofacial identification system, as a special automated version of photo/video superimposition technique, that can deal with common cases of personal identification with the aid of a skull and a nearly front view face photograph of the suspected victim.The proposed method is economic in respect of (i) cost of hardware configuration, (ii) processing time as well as (iii) manual labour involved. Over and above, it has got a capability to take care of ambiguities due to soft tissue thickness during the selection of facial features, which is a part of the procedure.In order to reconstruct a 2-D cranial image, superimposable over the facial one, the new method does not need any reconstruction of a digitised 3-D cranial image. It works simply by a suitable segment-wise processing of a 2-D cranial image with the aid of the symmetry perceiving adaptive neuronet (SPAN), that has recently been introduced in connection with nearly front view facial image recognition. The final comparison of the facial and the superimposable cranial images is as versatile as the same for facial image recognition by SPAN.A practical application of this extended version of SPAN has been demonstrated in the present paper.     

Facial soft-tissue thicknesses in the adult male Zulu

The morphometric method of forensic facial reconstruction rests heavily on the use of facial soft tissue depth measurements. In reconstructing the Negroid face, much use has been made of the tables of soft tissue thicknesses of American Negroid cadavers. However, the genetic complexities of American blacks are well known. In addition it is felt that measurements made on the living are of more value than those made on the dead. In view of this it was decided to set up a table of norms for facial soft tissue depths of the living Zulu, an African Negroid who has remained relatively free from genetic admixture with other populations. The tightly controlled sample consisted of 55 healthy male Zulus, aged 20 to 35. Tissue depths at established landmarks were measured from lateral and oblique cephalometric radiographs. These were then combined with ultrasonic readings at other landmarks on the subject's face to yield a comprehensive set of tissue depth data. This paper presents a set of average facial soft tissue depth measurements from the Zulu face that results in the development of a new profile. It also provides a method for linking two systems of measurement.     

Dramaturgical Scene Manipulation and its Importance for the False Pretender

Increasingly the media and academic publications bombard audiences with expose's and theoretical discourses on aspects of White Collar Crime, with little attempt to present case studies to better improve our general understanding of this area of deviance. Accordingly an urgent need exists for this type of presentation. The following discussion attempts to contribute to the fulfillment of this need. Instead of selecting the familiar topics of shoplifting and cheque frauds as a case study, I have concentrated on the more complex and less understood area of land fraud. In using a narrative approach to reconstruct the crime, the analysis tests the dramaturgical perspective as a tool of explanation. Dramaturgy has been generally discussed theoretically and to a lesser extent used as a perspective to explain social behaviors in a one scene context. This paper has a two-fold function, a) to stimulate awareness and increase understanding of an example of the white collar fraud act as a designed process and b) to establish the validity of this narrative approach utilizing dramaturgical analysis as a worthwhile case study review mechanism.     

Postmortem diagnosis of hypertonic dehydration

Beside morphological signs of hypertonic dehydration as tinting of skin, sunken eyes, dry surface of the galea or dry cutting areas of organs, a chemical profile of vitreous humor was proposed as a diagnostic tool for the diagnosis of hypertonic dehydration. The profile consists of an elevation of sodium >155 mmol/l, chloride >135 mmol/l and urea >40 mg/dl. This profile was named dehydration pattern. The value of this dehydration pattern for the diagnosis of hypertonic dehydration will be discussed by a short review of the literature and case reports. So far, the published literature on the dehydration pattern is not a sound scientific basis for the diagnosis of dehydration.     

Stereotyping,congruence and presentation order: Interpretative biases in utilizing offender profiles

Abstract

This paper explores how offender profiles might influence the way in which individuals interpret investigative information dependent on its congruence with the investigators’ own beliefs. Participants, comprising 222 lay people, completed an online questionnaire where a profile was either congruent or incongruent with a stereotypical or an atypical suspect who was presented before or after the introduction of the profile (resulting in eight conditions). Several cognitive strategies appeared to be used in interpreting the information. Contrary to expectations, individuals relying on representativeness heuristics were more influenced by a profile challenging their views than by one supporting them, whilst individuals who invested greater cognitive effort (termed hereafter “cognitive elaboration”) were more resistant to changing their views in light of disconfirming profiling advice. There was tentative evidence to suggest that a confirmation bias might occur when individuals engage in cognitive elaboration, such that individuals appeared to be more influenced by a confirming profile than by a disconfirming one. Finally, it was found that the profile was perceived to be more influential when presented before the introduction of a suspect than after. Implications for advising on the interpretation of such advice, as well as preparing such reports, are discussed.     

受虐儿童及青少年法医学鉴定92例分析

本文对92例不满18周岁家庭暴力受虐儿童和青少年法医学鉴定案例进行回顾性研究。结果表明：虐待行为多发生于下午5时前后，受虐者以女性居多（63．04％），损伤部位以头面部最多见（36．98％）。损伤类型以软组织挫伤最常见（51．13％），损伤具有多部位、广泛性、新旧不一等特点；发生场所以家中及家居周围附近为多，受虐者家庭情感生活环境差等.同时，作者还对虐待行为产生的社会根源、受虐儿童及青少年法医学鉴定及法律保护等问题进行了探讨。