退休年龄的法理分析及制度安排

退休年龄的确定关涉到劳动者劳动权和社会保障权的实现。目前我国退休年龄的规定存在男女退休年龄差距过大、退休年龄存在身份差别、退休年龄低于世界平均水平、养老金受领时长过长等问题,这些问题也导致了法律适用上的困惑。退休应当是劳动者的一项权利而非义务,退休与劳动权之间不应当有必然的排斥关系,劳动者劳动权不应因退休而受限制或者被剥夺,男女不同龄退休会导致女性社会保障权利的减损和对女性发展权的限制。退休年龄的科学确定,应当考虑政治因素、经济因素和社会因素等。我国未来立法应采取"渐进式"的方式合理延迟退休年龄,适当区分不同的人群适用不同的退休年龄制度,逐渐拉近男女退休年龄的差异,实行弹性退休制度作为对法定退休年龄的补充,以及实行更加开放的退休制度,从强制退休逐渐过渡到灵活退休。     

基本权利限制的合宪性基准

尽管美、德两国违宪审查基准因各自的法律价值取向、权利保护政策和法律传统不同而有所区别,表述方式也存在差异,但各国从形式和实质上的考量因素是基本一致的。这些因素包括确立基本权利限制之合宪性基准的本体论因素,如基本权利的类型、构成;关联论因素,如法治传统、司法政策;以及方法论因素,如基本权利限制的目的、手段和结果等。希望所整合出的基本权利限制之合宪性的基准体系,对我国的立法合宪性审查有所助益。     

加强与完善公民人格尊严之宪法保护

我国现行宪法规定"公民的人格尊严不受侵犯",将作为人权核心部分的"人格尊严"确定为公民基本权利,成为我国宪法史上一个重大立法进步和突破。但是从宪法文本对人格尊严的具体规定及其实现保障来看,人格尊严的宪法保护仍然存在明显不足和缺陷,需要通过健全和完善宪法立法体系及违宪审查制度加以弥补和加强。     

应建立我国的违宪审查制度

违宪审查制度是指对妨害宪法实施的各种违宪行为进行审查、裁判和惩处。实践证明,对普通公民的违宪行为进行追究比较容易,而对机关、政党的违宪行为追究较难。这就需要进行违宪审查立法。违宪审查制度为西方国家通过司法程序审查和裁决立法与行政是否违宪的一种制度,中国式的违宪审查制度不但要审查和裁决立法与行政是否违宪,而且还要审查和惩处一般的违宪行为.中国式的违宪审查制度应包括三方面的内容:一、审查和裁决立法与行政是否违宪。明确规定违宪审查的机构、范围,程序和追究主要当事人的法律责任。     

建构我国违宪审查基准模式

审查基准是宪政发达的国家在审查宪法案件时,为了确定审查对象是否合宪,通过案件积累而发展出的技术规范。要建立全新的、开放的、透明的违宪审查制度,其重点在于对违宪审查基准的选择。本文通过介绍违宪审查的基准,比较分析了德国和美国模式,提出我国的违宪审查基准可采取三重审查基准框架,采取以人权保障为核心,＂内心—外围＂式的审查强度归类方法,并对我国现行宪法中公民的基本权利进行了不同的强度类型划分,对建构符合我国国情的违宪审查基准提出了初步设想。     

宪法诉讼中的审查基准

宪法诉讼中的审查基准,是指违宪审查机构在对相关法律进行审查、判定的时候,所秉持的价值评判准则.自1938年美国的"凯罗琳产品案"以来,"二元基准"逐渐被确立,并在建立宪法诉讼制度的国家产生了深远的影响."二元基准"确立的原因主要包括三个方面:首先,社会情势的发展变化内在地要求放宽对关涉经济之立法的审查;其次,基本权利的不同秉性内在地要求对不同性质的基本权利施加不同的审查;其三,维系代议民主政治和宪法裁判机构之正当性内在地要求对关涉精神自由和经济自由的立法施加不同的审查.     

违宪检察论 检察机关启动违完审查程序的初步探讨

我国目前各类规范性法律文件抵触上位法甚至违宪的状况严峻．但是．现行的违宪审查制度存在较大缺陷,难以解决这一问题。首先,从我国现行宪法的规定来看,我国违宪审查的主体无疑是全国人大及其常委会．但全国人大及其常委会因职能众多、开会次数有限、成员多数为兼职等原因,并没有足够的时间和精力主动进行日常性的违宪审查。其次,我国宪法及法律都未对违宪审查制度的启动机制作出相应规定。再次,根据我国国情,普通法院也不适合成为我国的违宪审查机构。     

建立关联交易的司法审查标准——对公司法关于关联交易规范的一点建议

关联交易在现实中大量存在,由于不公平关联交易会对公司、债权人利益以及市场经济秩序造成破坏,因此有对其进行规制的必要。新公司法确立了一系列制度对关联交易进行规制。根据新《公司法》规定,公司的控股股东、实际控制人、董事、监事、高级管理人员不得利用其关联关系损害公司利益。违反前款规定,给公司造成损失的,应当承担赔偿责任。但判定关联人是否利用了关联关系损害了公司利益就没有任何司法审查标准。本文通过借鉴了国外的相关立法,并结合我国的实际情况,为我国建立关联交易的司法审查标准提出了一些建议。     

论我国违宪审查制度的构建

我国违宪审查制度缺陷存在违宪审查主体不清、欠缺违宪审查的启动程序、违宪审查范围排除基本法以及宪法缺少适用性等问题,简单地借鉴国外的违宪审查模式无法制定符合我国政体和国情违宪审查制度.本文认为构建全国人大常委下设立宪法委员会和司法机关作为违宪审查主体的复合制违宪审查模式.在该模式下将基本法纳入违宪审查范围,赋予一切单位和个人提起违宪审查的权利,司法机关消极地受理宪法之诉,如此一来,该制度可以在不违背我国基本制度的前提下解决我国现行违宪审查制度问题.     

法院如何审查土地开发者负担政策——基于美国法的判例梳理

伴随着都市化进程的加速,为了满足日益加重的公共建设任务,美国法中的开发者负担制度,作为将公共建设任务转移至私人开发主体的规制政策模式于20世纪中后期在地方各州层面开始大量出现。各州法院针对开发者负担制度形成了三种不同的形式化审查标准,亦即"合理关系"标准、"特定且唯一原因"标准以及"理性关联"标准,这些司法审查标准之间存在显著差异,形成了司法审查的地方主义特色。联邦最高法院提出的"根本关联"与"大致合比例"的司法审查标准,非但没有就此统一地方层面殊异的审查标准,反而使得开发者负担制度的合法性审查更加复杂化。20世纪90年代各州大规模的影响费立法,吸收了各州法院司法审查的特殊标准,体现了司法过程对规制政策的影响;同时,影响费立法中咨询委员会等程序装置,也鲜明反映了现代规制国家的制度特征。     

Superannuating the Second Sex: Law, Privatisation and Retirement Income

The privatisation of retirement income through state encouragement of occupational and retail funds affects men and women differently. This is largely because the legal forms adopted in the course of privatisation suppose a 40-year continuous working life, which is mostly a male experience. Although women with different backgrounds of class and race have a variety of employment patterns, on average women spend approximately half the years in the workforce that men do and are paid considerably less. Time-use statistics indicate this is because women are engaged in household production from which retirement income under privatised schemes does not accrue. The result is that low wages are replicated in inadequate retirement incomes, and many women live in poverty in retirement. Arguments from desert, social justice and a vision of citizenship in retirement are made to justify changes to current retirement income policy and its privatising legal forms.     

公务员退休金制度改革：理由与方略

公务员退休金制度的核心是退休金的筹集与发放制度,我国迫切需要进行此项制度的改革,理由是:平衡国家与公务员的合理负担的迫切需要;公平公务员之间利益分配的必然要求;实现公务人员与非公务人员合理流动的现实选择。改革的总体目标是:建立国家与公务员个人共同负担制度,逐步建立多元的公务员退休保障制度;尽快与社会保障制度接轨,实现公务员退休金管理与服务社会化。具体步骤是:积极稳妥,分类分步实施,并赋予公务员一定的选择权。     

Inheritance,succession, and familial transfer in rural Westphalia, 1800–1900

This article compares property transfer contracts between generations in two Prussian parishes where marital law differed significantly in the 19th century. Our sources focus on two critical phases in peasants' life cycles at the time. Whereas young people could find the resources to settle down, the older generation had to plan for their retirement. Although sons had a better chance of inheriting the farm, female successors were not rare. A peasant daughter's overall prospects of becoming a peasant by inheriting her parent's farm or marrying a farm successor were almost as good as her brother's. The situation for older women, however, was subject to their legal standing with regards to marital property. When couples held joint marital property, men and women had the same opportunities to arrange for retirement. In contrast, when couples held separate marital property and male succession prevailed, older women were at an evident disadvantage.     

The predictive validity of criminogenic needs for male and female offenders: Comparing the relative impact of needs in predicting recidivism

Most instruments used to assess offenders' risk of recidivism were developed and validated on male samples. Use of these instruments with female offenders is, however, common practice. This use with female offenders implies the assumption that the risk of recidivism can be predicted on the basis of the same risk factors for women as for men. Yet, this implied gender-neutrality of offender risk instruments has been the topic of much debate. This study compared criminogenic needs in male and female offenders and their relevance in predicting recidivism. A large sample of male and female offenders (N = 16,239) charged with a range of index offenses was studied. Results mainly support the gender neutrality of existing offender risk and needs assessment. However, results do suggest that some criminogenic needs may indeed have a different impact on recidivism for men and women. Problems with accommodation, education and work, and relationships with friends were more strongly correlated to general recidivism in men than in women. For women, difficulties with emotional well-being had a stronger correlation with recidivism than for men. In addition, relative to all other criminogenic needs, problems with emotional well-being were more important for women than for men in predicting general as well as violent recidivism. However, because the bivariate correlation for female offenders between emotional difficulties and recidivism is weak (as it is for male offenders), the question remains whether the relative importance of emotional difficulties in predicting recidivism in women actually has clinical relevance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Will She Stay or Will She Go? Career Ceilings and Women's Retirement from the U.S. Congress

This article offers the first broad‐based, systematic, times‐series assessment of the gender dynamics underlying congressional retirement. We extend the body of work on gender and representation by using the congressional retirement literature to develop an argument that accounts for the gender gap in the average length of congressional service. Our results indicate that women are less willing than men to remain in Congress when their ability to influence the legislative agenda stalls. Because of women's relatively early departures from the House of Representatives, our analysis suggests that prospects for women's representation are less promising than the conventional wisdom suggests.     

“全面二孩”政策背景下生育对女性养老金的影响——以广东省为例

本文基于对广东省的问卷调查分析认为,生育孩子数量对女性养老金有显著影响,女性会因生育遭受“养老金惩罚”,且“二孩”生育女性遭受的养老金损失高于“一孩”生育女性。可见,“生育收入惩罚”效应不仅作用于女性职业生涯期间,还作用于女性年老退休以后。因此,应坚持性别平等的原则,完善退休制度和公共托育服务,合理制定缴费年限、缴费指数、账户设置等社会养老保险制度标准,以削减女性“生育养老金惩罚”,提升“全面二孩”政策的实施效果。     

Assessing the Need for Gender-Specific Explanations of Prisoner Victimization

The literature on differences in the carceral experiences of women and men underscores the relevance of both background (pre-prison) and confinement factors for shaping inmates’ experiences during incarceration, but with a heavier emphasis on linkages between background factors and problems women face during confinement. Here, we apply these ideas to an understanding of sex differences in factors influencing victimization risk during incarceration. Sex-specific models of physical assaults and property thefts were estimated for random samples of inmates from 46 prisons in Ohio and Kentucky. Background factors were more important than confinement factors for influencing assaults on women whereas both sets of factors were relevant for men. Both background and confinement factors were important for predicting theft victimizations for both groups although the magnitude of several effects varied by an inmate’s sex. Findings suggest that effective crime prevention strategies in prison may vary across facilities for women and for men.     

刑事起诉制度的公正价值

公正是刑事司法活动的最高价值目标。起诉作为刑事诉讼中一个承前启后的重要环节，其公正价值包括二层含义一是实体公正；二是程序公正。实体公正是指在起诉阶段正确认定案件事实，运用法律。程序公正强调在起诉阶段加强对被追诉人的人权保障.实体公正与程序公正共同作用,相辅相成.     

Mental disorder in violent women in secure settings: Potential relevance to risk for future violence

The relevance to women of common violence risk factors identified in men has in many instances yet to be established. Consequently, there is a reluctance to accept without question the application to women of practices relating to violence risk assessment and management developed from research into men. This study examines mental disorder in women who are violent in order comment on its relevance to the practice of violence risk assessment and management. A sample of 95 violent women in high secure prison and forensic psychiatric care were assessed. Structured assessments of Axis I and II mental disorders and psychopathy were undertaken on all women and conviction histories were recorded. Very high levels of psychiatric morbidity were noted and patterns in comorbidity were detected. Among Axis I conditions, psychotic disorders and disorders of mood co-occurred at a very high rate. Among the Axis II conditions, dimensional ratings of borderline personality disorder (PD) correlated with dimensional ratings of avoidant, dependent and paranoid PDs while ratings of antisocial PD correlated with those of narcissistic, histrionic and obsessive–compulsive PDs. Women who had been incarcerated for a major violent offence were four times more likely to have a diagnosis of borderline PD than women whose index offence was one of minor violence. A number of the findings reported are in contrast to those reported in similar studies of men. Findings suggest that practitioners are right to question the application to women of knowledge derived from research into men. The practice of violence risk assessment and management with women should emphasise the development of individual risk formulations and responding to psychiatric comorbidity should be the rule rather than the exception with this population.