欧盟跨境数据流动的法律探究

本文对欧盟数据保护的法律渊源和跨境数据流动的法律设计进行了分析，研究了欧盟数据跨境流动的基本法律原则和不同实践形式，提出了建立数据跨境流动的设计原则。     

论欧盟法律与其成员国法律之间的关系

本文主要阐释了欧盟的法律渊源并通过判例解析了欧盟法律对其各成员国的直接效力原则和优先适用原则;以立法和司法实践说明了欧盟法律与其成员国法律之间的相互影响,进而揭示出当代两大法系相融合的某种趋势;论述了欧盟及其成员国分别对外签订的条约之间的相互关系。     

风险预防原则理论与实践反思——兼论风险预防原则的核心问题

尽管风险预防原则已经获得了广泛的认可,但其在理论和实践两个层面都具有较大的争议性。欲破解风险预防原则的内在困境,应在明晰存在的真正问题的基础上作出解释并提出可能的解决之道,避免仅仅依据法律文本进行＂空对空＂的分析。风险预防原则存在的真正问题是其法律效力问题,这就要求我们放宽研究的视野,从法律实效和社会实证入手,探究风险预防原则如何在社会中发挥效果。     

WTO规则在欧盟法律体系中效力的新发展——统一解释原则的确定与适用

WTO规则在其成员国国内具有何种法律效力这一问题同保护私人从WTO规则中所获得的确定性和可预见性有着紧密的联系。在WTO成员普遍反对直接适用WTO规则的情况下,欧盟法院于最近案例中确立的统一解释原则为WTO规则的国内效力问题的发展带来了曙光。尽管欧盟法院在适用统一解释原则时存在法律解释技术上的问题,这一实践对于其他WTO成员实践的影响仍值得期待。     

欧盟转基因食品法律管制制度研究

对转基因食品的法律管制具有特殊的复杂性和敏感性。自 1990年开始 ,欧盟基于“预防原则”的理念 ,对转基因食品进行法律管制 ,要求其在上市前必须接受风险评估和审批 ,在上市时以特殊标签加以标识。 2 0 0 3年 9月欧盟又通过新的立法 ,实施更为严格的管制制度。欧盟的做法一方面有利于保护环境和消费者健康 ,另一方面又为转基因食品的进口设置了技术壁垒。     

欧盟反倾销调查不同阶段关于产业损害认定的法律标准及证据规则

根据欧盟现有的反倾销立法及其实践,欧盟反倾销产业损害认定能否成立大致可以分成立案审查阶段、初裁前调查阶段、终裁前后续调查阶段和复审阶段等四个阶段.这四个阶段中,欧盟反倾销调查机构关于损害认定的法律标准的侧重点各不相同,而且在利害关系方证据材料的要求方面各具不同特点.欧盟产业损害调查各阶段法律标准和证据规则侧重点不同的做法并没有违反WTO《反倾销协定》之原则和精神,欧盟反倾销调查各阶段产业损害认定采用不同标准的做法值得我国借鉴.     

通过环境媒介保护的健康保护——空气和水污染防治

德国环境法的法律渊源主要包括德国联邦法律、各州法律、欧盟法和国际条约。德国环境法有预防、污染者付费、合作、可持续发展和一体化五个核心原则。在对空气和水污染的规制方法上,除了传统的许可和指令方法外,还经常使用规划、环境影响评估和战略环境评估、环境信息和经济方法。环境保护的国家目标被写进了德国《宪法》后,联邦宪法法院判例又赋予了公民针对个人实施环境污染行为启动宪法保护程序的权利。污染防治方面的核心法律是《联邦污染防治法》,其核心要素是在许可等方面的程序规定。德国将欧盟的《水资源框架指令》转化为《水资源法》在国内实施,该法的核心原则是任何水域利用行为都必须申请行政机关的许可或者同意。     

欧盟基本原则释义

本文通过欧盟基本原则、欧洲各大共同体及成员国之间关系的基本原则、欧盟法中的一般法律原则、欧盟法的原则、欧盟宪法的原则的定义和法律基础角度考察以厘清这五个概念之间的区别和联系。     

论欧洲民法的“限定”自治原则

欧盟基础性法律最初并未明确保障经济主体之自治,但却将之预设于其法律规则之中。《欧洲联盟条约》第3条第3款要求内部市场应以'高度竞争性的社会市场经济'为基础。尽管欧盟法并非全面系统的法律秩序,但却建立在成员国法律体系的基础之上。合同自由是成员国法的一项一般原则,尽管欧盟基础性法律并未明确规定合同自由原则,但这一原则也内蕴...     

德国食品法中健康保护的机构、方法和程序

德国现代食品法的重要内容包括基本原则和理想模型,主要有预防原则、成熟的消费者理想模型、透明原则、可追溯性原则和分级责任,其对行政机关和市场主体的行为进行了规范。在食品行政管理领域,欧盟层面的立法和司法主要由欧盟主导,但食品监督和管理责任由成员国承担。德国同样采用立法权限集中、行政管理权限分散的模式。在实行许可自由原则的基础上,德国食品法还规定了广泛的风险预防措施、对消费者的多种保护方法,及其"黑名单"、食品行业自我监督和质量保证和大个体商业企业监督等制度。此外,《欧洲人权公约》和德国《基本法》规定了在食品法领域针对国家措施的法律救济途径。     

The Precautionary Principle as a Device for Greater Environmental Protection: Lessons from EC Courts

Given that the precautionary principle has never been defined in the EC Treaty, the EC jurisdictions have been playing a key role in determining the status as well as the scope of that principle. Although scholars have hitherto been paying heed to the case law on food safety, the literature has become a little thinner when one considers environmental case law. This article attempts to set the scene to explain how the precautionary principle can be invoked in different judiciary procedures at the EU level.     

论预先防范原则在国际环境法中的地位

预先防范原则是在20世纪80、90年代出现在国际环境法领域的一种新的处理缺少确切科学证据的环境风险的主张.迄今已有至少八个国际环境条约载入了与预先防范原则有关的内容,虽然具体用词不尽相同;与预先防范原则有关的案例也已经有数个.以这些为研究对象,探讨预先防范原则在国际环境法上的地位.现在预先防范原则还没有形成国际环境法领域的习惯法,但很多国家愿意在处理缺少确切科学证据的环境风险时,使用与其相关的方法或措施.     

Applying Precaution in EU Authorisation of Genetically Modified Products—Challenges and Suggestions for Reform

In this article, I endeavour to examine concrete challenges that arise with regard to implementation of the precautionary principle in the field of European Union regulation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Developed by the European courts into a general legal principle, precaution requires EU regulators to strike a balance between scientific and political legitimacy when taking decisions on risk‐entailing products. Following this understanding, the current GMO legislation creates precautionary governance structures that allow for a broad input into the authorisation process, not only of scientific, but also of ‘other legitimate factors’. At the same time, it can be criticised for narrowly defining precaution as a decision rule, which, if applied correctly, will lead the decision maker to the ‘right’ decision. I argue that this misconception is one of the reasons why, in the current authorisation practice, the EU institutions fail to apply the principle in a balanced way, falling into the extremes of either purely science‐based decision making or a highly politicised precautionary rhetoric. I suggest that in order not to be paralysing, precaution should be understood as a procedural principle that provides for precautionary governance, thus enabling regulators to make appropriate risk choices.     

Interpretation and Application of the Precautionary Principle: Australia's Contribution

Australia has been a leading jurisdiction in the adoption of the precautionary principle, with widespread policy and legislative incorporation. This has paved the way for the development of a substantial jurisprudence on the interpretation and application of the principle. The international derivation of the version of the precautionary principle adopted in Australia, together with the wide range of areas in which the principle has been applied, for example biodiversity protection, environmental impact assessment, climate change, public health, etc., means that judicial consideration of the principle in Australia has the potential to form a body of common law with national and international application. Accordingly, this article reviews the adoption, interpretation and application of the precautionary principle in Australian environmental law, with a view to drawing out the general lessons this experience offers for interpretation of the principle in other, international settings .     

论风险预防原则的适用要件——以国际环境法为背景

作为国际环境法的基本原则之一,风险预防原则已经在许多国际环境协定中得到了直接的规定或间接的反映。在适用风险预防原则的过程中,需要遵循以下三个方面的要件:1.适用风险预防原则的前提条件,包括风险阀值和科学不确定性的确定;2.依据风险预防原则进行决策的过程中需遵循的要件,包括成本效益分析以及根据不同的风险水平采取适当的预防措施;3.执行风险预防措施的过程中需遵循的要件,包括对措施的后期审查及相关科学信息的收集。     

The Precautionary Principle in General International Law: Combating the Babylonian Confusion

The purpose of this article is to contribute to the clarification of the legal scope of the precautionary principle. The primary focus is on general international law, so as to determine as accurately as possible what it is that 'the' precautionary principle entails. The legal development, status and implications of the principle pass in review. A definition is presented of a right and a duty of States to take precautionary action, which is deemed representative of the current state of customary international law. Several particularly controversial issues receive separate treatment, including the burden of proof, the role of uncertainty and the application of the precautionary principle to human health protection. Special attention is paid to the practical relevance of the various findings, which are placed in the context of recent developments.     

The legal regime for application of the precautionary principle in India: future directions for the GM regulatory regime

The precautionary principle is one of the most contentious principles in contemporary international legal developments. The very fact that it is a principle of international environmental law has been questioned by many legal scholars. However, this does not take away the fact that the precautionary principle continues to be applied widely across sectors both internationally and nationally. The nature and scope of its application has varied widely according to the context and sector within which it has been applied. The central issue which this article seeks to address is the regulatory and the policy making space that is available to the Government of India in the context of the obligations as undertaken under the Cartagena Protocol and under various other international treaties. The regulatory space would also be affected by the domestic legal developments across sectors in which the principle has been applied. India’s recent decision on the large-scale commercialisation of Bt-Cotton has already created much debate regarding its appropriateness given the realities of Indian farm practices. More specifically, it has also led to a rethinking of the role and application of the precautionary principle in addressing these realities. Considering that the Indian policy on biotechnology is currently being drafted, it is important to look into the scope of applying the precautionary principle in taking any decision on genetically modified organisms (GMO) in terms of their distribution of risks, incorporating the social and equity impacts of such decisions.

GENERAL AND PARTICULAR APPLYING ELEMENTS OF THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

In the context of WTO dispute settlement, the precautionary principle is a predominant concept, in the face of serious risks and scientific uncertainty, that is often characterized as “better safe than sorry.” Although the precautionary principle appears in various treaties, declarations, and even laws, it is often formulated in abstract terms, leading to the great ambiguity of its primary elements. The Panel and the Appellate Body always avoid discussing the precautionary principle in WTO cases due to its obscure definition. On March 13, 2012, the United States, the European Union, and Japan each requested consultations with China as China’s measures that made restrictions on the exportation of rare earths, tungsten, and molybdenum had been in conflict with their national interest. After examining the matter at issue, the Panel and the Appellate Body rejected China’s arguments regardless of its repeated claims about its consideration of environmental protection. With the case as the starting point, this article focuses on the precautionary principle and explores its status and elements, in order to establish a two-dimensional model of the precautionary principle that is applicable in international trade.     

Science and Policy in International Environmental Agreements: Lessons from the European experience on Transboundary Air Pollution

Science and policy come together in the use of computer models for International Environmental Agreements (IEAs). We study a successful case in using Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) in defining the long-range transboundary air pollution policies in Europe. In the light of the history of the LRTAP Convention of the UN-ECE, we consider the special circumstances which led to the success of the RAINS model that was employed. We find that the collaborative, self-aware and evolutionary character of the institutional framework built among the LRTAP Convention, IIASA and the EU facilitated the successful adoption of RAINS. We also show how the limits of computer models, fully recognised in this case by producers and users, leave issues of uncertainty, distribution and ethics unresolved. When facing international negotiations, several coalitions might emerge. An analysis of the situtation is done in terms of First-Comers and Late-Comers in Environmental policy, the first group undertaking the initiative to formulate international policies on issues that are of concern to themselves and for which they have acquired technologies, models and know-how, while the second group is just following international policy and most often viewing it as a constraint. This is discussed in the example of the Spanish participation in the negotiations about sulphur emissions in the buildup to the Oslo Protocol. The adoption of the precautionary principle is often being used as a way to handle uncertainty when facing urgent policy responsibilities for environmental issues.     

外资征收与环境保护——不补偿环境征收之合法性刍议

由于环境保护关系到人类整体和国际社会共同利益,在外资征收的立法与实践中环境保护和外资保护应予一体化考虑,但现状却反映出外资私益优先于环境公益的倾向。从建立国际经济新秩序的角度看,为使发展中国家不致因环保因素付出不必要的代价,环境征收不应具有补偿性。而且,不补偿环境征收合法性根植于污染者付费原则、预防原则、治安权例外以及国际环境法义务优先原则。