Microcredit and development: a multi-level examination of women’s participation in microfinance institutions

International organisations promote microcredit as a tool for socio-economic development by targeting women’s entrepreneurial capabilities. There is limited research, however, on the variation in women’s participation in microcredit in developing nations. To understand this variation, this article examines the relationship between a country’s gender equality levels and women’s microcredit participation. The results indicate that participation is higher when loans are small; however, with increases in gender equality levels, participation decreases. Women in countries with higher gender inequality are limited to very small loans and questionable economic improvements, suggesting that microcredit needs to be utilised contextually to be an effective developmental tool.     

“I'd like to participate,but . . .”: women farmers' scepticism towards agricultural extension/education programmes

This mixed research is inspired by our desire to explain why rural women are cautious in their attitudes towards agricultural extension/education. Fifty-two women livestock farmers from Thessaly-Greece were randomly selected to participate in the study. Our results indicate that at one end of the spectrum women express a high willingness to participate in agricultural extension/education programmes, while at the other end this willingness is not translated into participation mainly because of women's perception that agricultural extension/education constitutes a male dominated area. Another key determinant restricting women's participation arises from their low familiarity with education and the unpleasant experiences they recall from school.

« J'aimerais participer, mais… » : le scepticisme des agricultrices concernant les programmes de vulgarisation/d’éducation

Ce travail de recherches mixtes s'inspire de notre désir d'expliquer pourquoi les femmes en milieu rural font preuve de circonspection dans leurs attitudes envers la vulgarisation/l’éducation agricoles. Cinquante-deux éleveuses de Thessalie (Grèce) ont été sélectionnées au hasard pour prendre part à cette étude. Nos résultats indiquent qu’à une extrémité de l’éventail, les femmes expriment une forte volonté de participer à des programmes de vulgarisation/d’éducation agricoles, tandis qu’à l'autre cette volonté ne se traduit pas en participation, principalement du fait que les femmes considèrent que la vulgarisation/l’éducation agricoles constituent un domaine dominé par les hommes. Un autre facteur déterminant clé qui restreint la participation des femmes provient de leur manque de contact avec les services d’éducation et des expériences désagréables dont elles se souviennent du temps où elles allaient à l’école.

“Me gustaría participar, pero…”: el escepticismo de las campesinas ante los programas de extensión o de educación agrícola

Esta investigación mixta fue motivada por el objetivo de los autores de explicar las razones por las cuales, en sus actitudes, las mujeres campesinas son reticentes a la extensión o a la educación agrícola. En este sentido, se seleccionaron aleatoriamente 52 mujeres ganaderas de Thessaly, Grecia, con el fin de que participaran en el estudio. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que, en un extremo de la gama de opiniones, las mujeres expresan mucho interés en participar en los programas de extensión, mientras que, en el otro extremo, el interés expresado no se traduce en una participación real. En general, ello responde a la percepción de que la extensión/educación agrícola constituye un área dominada por los hombres. Asimismo, otro factor clave que representa una limitante para la participación de las mujeres tiene que ver con su poca familiaridad con la educación y con las experiencias desagradables que vivieron en la escuela.

“Eu gostaria de participar, mas . . .”: ceticismo das mulheres produtoras rurais em relação a programas de extensão/educação agrícola

Esta mescla de pesquisas é impulsionada pelo nosso desejo de explicar por que as mulheres da área rural são reticentes em suas atitudes em relação a programas de extensão/educação agrícola. Cinquenta e duas mulheres produtoras de gado de Tessália-Grécia foram aleatoriamente selecionadas para participar do estudo. Nossos resultados indicam que em um dos extremos, as mulheres expressam uma vontade muito grande de participar de programas de extensão/educação agrícola, enquanto que em outro extremo essa vontade não se traduz em participação, principalmente devido à percepção das mulheres de que a extensão/educação agrícola constitui uma área dominada pelos homens. Um outro determinante-chave que restringe a participação das mulheres surge da pouca familiaridade delas com a educação e de experiências desagradáveis que elas tiverem na escola.     

The marginalisation of participation “as an end” development: an Ecuadorean case study

The evolution of participatory practices clearly evidences movement away from local participatory projects implemented with the use of participatory methodologies such as participatory rural appraisal, and towards citizen participation in government activities. This trend reflects development discourse concerning participation, and in particular responds to the critique aimed at local participatory development. Using case study data from Ecuador, the article discusses the previously overlooked effects of this phenomenon, namely a uniformity of participatory development practice and a lack of opportunities for people to engage in development activities that provide participation “as an end” benefits such as empowerment and confidence-building.     

The “Double-Battle”: women combatants and their embodied experiences in war zones

Our study contributes to the ongoing debate about women in combat by exploring women combatants’ experiences of war through interviews with women soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces who served as combatants or in combat-support roles in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. We proffer that the bodily experiences of women combatants disturb conventional international relations and hegemonic masculine war metanarratives that either abstract or glorify combat. These otherwise silenced narratives reveal juxtapositions of feelings of competence and vulnerability and shed light on the women’s struggle for gender integration in the military. We conclude the article with a reflection on the challenges facing researchers investigating war and terrorism.     

“We want financial accountability”: deconstructing tensions of community participation in CHPS,Ghana

This article reports on the ways and factors that facilitate or constrain community participation in the Community-based Health Planning and Services (CHPS) programme in Nsanfo, a village in Central Region of Ghana. We found that the community made an important step through mobilising the necessary resources in establishing the CHPS compound, which has resulted in improved access to health care. Yet maintaining the facility did not matter most to community members, owing chiefly to unmet demands for financial accountability pertaining to the running of the programme. Failure to clearly identify various actors and their roles potentially explains this state of affairs.     

“The pluses of pulses”: haricot beans and women’s empowerment in Ethiopia

This practical note demonstrates the role that haricot beans play in assisting women to become food and nutrition secure, to generate income, and to have sustainable livelihoods that are resilient to shocks. Based on qualitative research among female and male beneficiaries of a pulse innovation project implemented in southern Ethiopia, the note provides a summary of the critical voices of farmers, and the role that haricot beans play in empowering women. It also outlines some of the challenges that the project faced in achieving its empowerment objectives.     

Making women terrorists into “Jihadi brides”: an analysis of media narratives on women joining ISIS

ABSTRACT

Although the involvement of women in terrorist activities is not new, it is still considered to be an exceptional phenomenon. The figure of a woman militant contradicts the main gender constructions and thus produces a certain shock and disconcertment in societies. In the case of “Jihadism”, women who willingly join a terrorist organisation also challenge the Western Neo-Orientalist perspective on Muslim women in the West. Starting from these theoretical standpoints, this article focuses on a group of terrorists who have recently received a great deal of attention: ISIS women jihadis. Based on a critical discourse analysis of three main UK broadsheets, this article presents, deconstructs and problematises the main depictions that were used to describe these subjects. Furthermore, it discusses how the frames described reconcile these women’s actions with the gender and Neo-Orientalist constructions that circulate in Western societies, safeguarding the deriving hegemonic narratives. In other words, the article focuses on how women terrorists are made into “Jihadi Brides”.     

Consolidating democracy by containing distribution: “sandwich tactics” in Indian political development, 1936–96

How did Indian democracy avoid the fate of other Third World democracies that collapsed in the face of distributional conflicts, when such conflicts were in ample evidence in India? The traditional answer is that the inclusiveness of the Indian National Congress during the independence movement gave the party legitimacy after independence and allowed it to contain social conflict. This argument fails to account for the persistence of Indian democracy after the 1960s. This article suggests that the pre-independence Congress did not accommodate challengers from below as is commonly suggested, but rather outflanked them by championing still weaker groups further down the social ladder. This “sandwich tactic” has been used repeatedly by Congress leaders during successive crises and accounts for the party's long innings in power, its continued strength today, and, inter alia, the acquiescence of Indian elites in electoral democracy.     

Cultivating “success” and “failure” in policy: participatory irrigation management in Nepal

Introduced over a decade ago and considered largely successful by irrigation professionals, Irrigation Management Transfer and Participatory Irrigation Management (IMT/PIM) policies were recently reviewed and seen to have resulted in more cases of “failure” than “success”. Primary research on two IMT/PIM projects in Nepal, which were among the few “successes” in the assessment supporting a “failed” PIM, shows how such policy-driven evaluations, when defining success, overlook incongruities between policies, institutions, and the evolving dynamics around class, caste, ethnicity, and gender. Without exploring the dynamics of practice, the process of “cultivating” success and/or failure in evaluations provides little insight on how irrigation management works on the ground.     

“Nobody helps us”: insights from ultra-poor Bangladeshi women on being beyond reach

This paper documents the exclusion from formal assistance of 43 Bangladeshi ultra-poor female heads of household, which forces women to rely on overstretched forms of informal assistance that are not culturally prescribed and are often experienced as shameful. Experiences of helplessness reinforced by dominant views of the ultra-poor as going nowhere discourage women from seeking out formal assistance. In order to overcome the effects of being deemed “beyond reach”, scholars and providers of aid must attend to persistent forms of neglect and exclusion in formal aid programmes, including the false assumption that the ultra-poor easily access prescribed informal social supports.

« Personne ne nous vient en aide » : points de vue de femmes bangladaises ultra-pauvres sur le fait qu'elles sont « hors de portée »

Cet article documente l'exclusion de toute assistance formelle de 43 Bangladaises chefs de famille ultra-pauvres, exclusion qui contraint ces femmes à dépendre de formes d'assistance informelle déjà insuffisantes qui ne sont pas culturellement prescrites et sont souvent vécues comme honteuses. Les expériences d'impuissance, renforcées par le fait que les ultra-pauvres sont le plus souvent perçus comme condamnés à leur condition, dissuadent les femmes de demander une assistance formelle. Afin de surmonter les effets qu'a sur elles le fait d'être considérées comme « hors de portée », les théoriciens et les fournisseurs d'aide doivent remédier à des formes persistantes d'abandon et d'exclusion dans les programmes formels d'aide, y compris la fausse hypothèse selon laquelle les ultra-pauvres peuvent facilement accéder à des réseaux de soutien social informels.

“Nadie nos ayuda”: hallazgos obtenidos entre mujeres en situación de extrema pobreza de Bangladesh respecto a su percepción de estar fuera del alcance de toda ayuda

Este artículo documenta las condiciones en que se encuentran 43 mujeres cabezas de familia de Bangladesh en situación de extrema pobreza, quienes han sido excluidas del sistema de asistencia formal. Tal exclusión obliga a las mujeres a depender de la escasa asistencia informal, no sancionada culturalmente. Por ello, a menudo experimentan vergüenza a la hora de recibirla. Al buscar ayuda formal las mujeres enfrentan las dificultades generadas por la sensación de impotencia que las invade, la cual se ve reforzada por la opinión existente a nivel general de que las personas que padecen extrema pobreza nunca podrán salir de esta situación. Para superar los efectos producidos por la percepción de estar “fuera del alcance de toda ayuda”, los académicos y los proveedores de asistencia deberán enfrentar las persistentes formas de abandono y de exclusión derivadas de los programas de ayuda formales, incluyendo la suposición falsa de que las personas en situación de extrema pobreza pueden obtener ayuda social informal con facilidad.

“Ninguém nos ajuda”: ideias de mulheres bengalesas que vivem em pobreza extrema sobre estarem fora de alcance

Este artigo documenta a exclusão, da assistência formal, de 43 mulheres bengalesas chefes de família que vivem em pobreza extrema, o que as força a dependerem de formas sobrecarregadas de assistência informal que não são culturalmente indicadas e que são frequentemente vivenciadas como humilhantes. Experiências de desamparo reforçadas por visões dominantes sobre as pessoas que vivem em pobreza extrema não conseguirem ir a lugar algum desincentivam as mulheres a buscar assistência formal. Para superar os efeitos de se ser considerado “fora de alcance”, acadêmicos e provedores de ajuda humanitária devem abordar as formas persistentes de negligência e exclusão de programas de ajuda formal, incluindo o falso pressuposto de que os que vivem em extrema pobreza têm acesso facilmente a apoio social informal adequado.     

The aesthetics of “everyday” violence: narratives of violence and Hindu right-wing women

“Right-wing” movements see significant participation by women who espouse their exclusionary and violent politics while at the same time often contest their patriarchal spaces. Women also serve as discursive and symbolic markers that regularly form the basis of the rhetoric, ideology, actions and policies of the right-wing. However, even as women’s roles and politics within the right-wing remain diverse and important, dominant feminist scholarship has had uneasy encounters with right-wing women, labelling them as monolithic pawns/victims/subjects of patriarchy with limited or no agency. This article aims to question this notion by examining the aesthetics and visual and oral imagery appropriated, (re)constructed, transformed and mediated by right-wing women. Based on ethnographic and visual research conducted in 2013–2014 with women in the cultural nationalist Hindu right-wing project in India, I argue that right-wing women use a variety of visual and oral narratives (from images to storytelling) to negotiate with spatialities and carve out independent “feminine” discourses within the larger language of the right-wing. I also argue that these narratives are “ritualised” and performed in various spaces and styles and remain crucial to the “everyday” politics and violence of right-wing women. The “everyday” politics of right-wing women often contest, subvert and bargain with the patriarchal goals of the larger projects, rendering narratives as sites of examining agency. Using specific examples of visual and oral narratives from the aforementioned movement, this article articulates how everyday violence is shaped by the aesthetics of the nation and the body, and how these aesthetics shape everyday violence.     

“I know! I live here”: poor women and the work of empowerment

To trace the effects of empowerment programmes in the Global South, attention needs to be focused on the everyday practices of frontline staff, or fieldworkers, who convey empowerment ideas and practices at the grassroots. This is especially critical when fieldworkers work in the marginalised communities where they also live. Instead of looking outward towards a programme’s outcomes, this article turns inward to examine the impact of women fieldworkers’ dual experiences of development on their decisions and practices in the field. The ethnography of women fieldworkers in a government-led women’s empowerment programme for the poor in Delhi, India reveals the uneasy relationship of women’s empowerment to the larger contradictory development paradigm that they work within. Fieldworkers used their experiences as poor women to meet programme quotas, while also side-lining social change in favour of shielding clients from ineffective programme activities.     

Domains of faith impact: how “faith” is perceived to shape faith-based international development organisations

Increasing interest in faith-based international development organisations (FBOs) recently has improved understanding of these agencies. One reason for complex, often contradictory findings is the lack of frameworks analysing the interactions of worldviews on organisational structures, processes, and behaviours of agencies, and development outcomes. We utilise Lincoln's (2003. Holy Terrors: Thinking about Religion after September 11. Chicago: University of Chicago Press) four “domains of religion” to explore how the literature reports faith impacting the shape of development FBOs’ structures, behaviours, and outcomes. Literature suggests faith has a significant impact upon these agencies. We outline very specific similarities and differences, highlighting the importance of nuanced analysis of faith's role in FBOs. Further research is needed to build more evidence around these impacts of faith on FBOs.     

Immigrants and undesirables: “terrorism” and the “terrorist” in 1930s France

This article investigates French understandings of the terms “terrorism” and “terrorist” in the period of the late Third Republic when a series of assassinations, murders and bombings suggested that France was dangerously exposed to the threat of terror. The article deconstructs contemporary understandings of the phenomenon, showing that, if a variety of actions were labelled “terrorist”, the term was deployed in particular in relation to matters of foreignness. It was believed that immigrants, refugees and foreign secret agents imported terrorist violence to France. French citizens did not – could not even – perpetrate terrorism. Parallels may be drawn between discussions of citizenship in the wake of twenty-first century acts of terrorism and manifestations of such violence during the 1930s when notions of terrorism, Frenchness and foreignness were intimately connected.     

Norming “Moderation” in an “Iconic Target”: Public Policy and the Regulation of Religious Anxieties in Singapore

The maintenance of a “moderate mainstream” Muslim community as a bulwark against the fraying of harmonious ethnic relations has become a key governance concern post-September 11. In light of the global concern—and often paranoia—with diasporic Islam, Islamic religious institutions and civil society have been portrayed in the popular media as hotbeds of radicalism, promoters of hatred, and recruiters for a “conflict of civilization” between the Muslim world and the modern world. Having declared itself a terrorist's “iconic target,” Singapore has taken a broad-based community approach in advancing inter-religious tolerance, including a subtle initiative to include the “Muslim civil society” in advancing the understanding and the promotion of a moderate brand of Islam in Singapore. This tacit process of regulation (top-down, intra-community and inter-community), while effective, is constrained by the unique governance context in Singapore.