The talus: sex assessment of prehistoric New Zealand Polynesian skeletal remains

Prehistoric Polynesian skeletal remains are frequently being recovered in New Zealand due to the increasing pace of urbanisation. Since such material must often be reinterred quickly, it is important that the sex of individuals be determined from the remains in a relatively short time. For this purpose, discriminant function analysis was utilised for sex determination of prehistoric adult New Zealand Polynesian tali (24 males and 27 females). Five measurements were taken and subjected to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) discriminant function analysis. For the discriminant functions derived, accuracy of sex determination ranged from 85.1 to 93.3%. Reduction in error over random assignment by sex ranged from 70 to 87%.     

The calcaneus: sex assessment of prehistoric New Zealand Polynesian skeletal remains

The increasing pace of urbanisation has meant that prehistoric Polynesian skeletal remains are frequently being recovered in New Zealand. Since such material must often be reinterred quickly, it is important that the sex of individuals be determined from the remains in a relatively short time. For this purpose, discriminant function analysis was utilised for sex determination of prehistoric adult New Zealand Polynesian calcanei (26 male and 22 female). Five measurements were taken and subjected to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) discriminant function analysis. For the discriminant functions derived, accuracy of sex determination ranged from 88.4 to 93.5%. Reduction in error over random assignment by sex ranged from 77 to 87%.     

The femoral head: sex assessment of prehistoric New Zealand Polynesian skeletal remains

Prehistoric Polynesian skeletal remains are frequently being recovered in New Zealand due to the increasing pace of urbanisation. Since such material must often be reinterred quickly, it is important that the sex of individuals be determined from the remains in a relatively short time. For this purpose, discriminant function analysis was utilised for sex determination of prehistoric adult New Zealand Polynesian femora (47 male and 44 female). Three measurements of the femoral head were taken and subjected to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) discriminant function analysis. For the discriminant functions derived, accuracy of sex determination ranged from 80.9% to 82.4%. Reduction in error over random assignment by sex ranged from 62% to 65%.     

Articular surfaces of the pectoral girdle: sex assessment of prehistoric New Zealand Polynesian skeletal remains

Prehistoric Polynesian skeletal remains are frequently being recovered in New Zealand due to the increasing pace of urbanisation. Since such material must often be reinterred quickly, it is important that the sex of individuals be determined from the remains in a relatively short time. For this purpose, discriminant function analysis was utilised for sex determination of prehistoric adult New Zealand Polynesian clavicles (31 male and 31 female) and scapulae (33 male and 38 female). Diameters of the acromial and sternal ends of the clavicle and the height and breadth of the scapular glenoid cavity were measured and subjected to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) direct discriminant function analysis. For the single discriminant function derived, accuracy of sex determination was 97.7% and reduction in error over random assignment by sex was 95%. This discriminant function will be a useful tool in the assessment of human remains in the forensic and archaeological context because it incorporates measurements which can be taken on incomplete bones.     

The acetabulum: sex assessment of prehistoric New Zealand Polynesian innominates

With increasing urban development in New Zealand, prehistoric Polynesian skeletal remains are frequently being recovered. Since such material must often be reinterred quickly, it has become important that the sex of individuals be determined from the remains in a relatively short time. For this purpose, discriminant function analysis was utilised for sex determination of prehistoric adult New Zealand Polynesian innominates (21 male and 35 female). Maximum diameter of the acetabulum was measured and subjected to SPSS direct discriminant function analysis. Accuracy of sex determination ranged from 85.2% to 86.2%. Reduction in error over random assignment by sex ranged from 70% to 72%. The two discriminant functions derived will provide a useful tool for the assessment of human remains in the forensic and archaeological context because they incorporate a single measurement which can be taken on incomplete bones.     

Osteometric analysis of sexual dimorphism in the sternal end of the rib

Although there have been a number of radiological studies of the entire anterior thorax, no attempt has been made to establish a method of sex determination based on direct metrical analysis of an isolated rib. The present study attempts to determine sex from the sternal end of the fourth rib. The sample (144 males, 86 females) was obtained from individuals of known age, sex, and race autopsied at a medical examiner's office. Three measurements (height, width, and sternal articular pit depth) were taken from each bone. The sample was divided into three groups: young, old, and the combined total and analyzed by means of stepwise discriminant function statistics. It was found that the accuracy of sex determination varied from 82% in the young and 89% in the old groups to 83% for the combined group. However, when a discriminant function formula developed for a different age group was used the accuracy of correct assessment diminished considerably. It was, therefore, concluded that sexual dimorphism can be detected by metrical analysis from the teens to the 70s and this dimorphism increases with age.     

Discriminating sex in South African blacks using patella dimensions

For many years, sex determination has been carried out on skeletal remains to identify individuals in forensic cases and to assess populations in archaeological cases. Since it has been shown that not all bones are found in a forensic case, discriminant function equations should be derived for all bones of the body to assist in sex determination. Numerous studies have shown the usefulness of bones of the lower extremity (e.g. femur, tibia) in sex determination using discriminant function analysis, but the use of patella measurements has not been extensively investigated for this purpose. It is therefore the aim of this study to derive discriminant function equations for sex determination from measurements of the patella of South African blacks as represented in the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons. A total sample of 120 (60 male, 60 female) patellae were measured using six measurements. The Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) program was used to derive the equations. Stepwise and direct analyses were performed with the highest rate of classification of 85% thereby making the patella useful for sex determination. Thus, the proposed equations derived from this study should be used with caution and only on the South African black population group.     

Metrical and non-metrical assessment of population affinity from the calcaneus

To date, there are no metric standards for differentiating between population groups from measurements of the calcaneus in South Africa. Previously, some of the measurements of the calcaneus have been used for sex determination in Americans, Europeans, Italians and South Africans. However, the variations in the number of articular facet present on the superior surface of the calcaneus have been observed in different population groups. This study aims at investigating the potentials of measurements of the calcaneus in diagnosing population affinity and observes population variations of the number of articular facet present on its superior surface in indigenous South Africans and those of European descent. Nine measurements were taken from 180 non-pathological left calcanei in a sample of known sex and population affinity obtained from the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons. Three articular facet types were observed. A significantly higher incidence of type A was observed in South Africans of European descent (SAED) population group while type B predominated in the indigenous South African (ISA) population group. Type C even though rare was found only in ISA group. The metrical data were subjected to discriminant function analyses. The average accuracy in correct classification (81-89%) obtained for the discriminant function equations derived in this study may assist in the determination of population affinity when the calcaneus is present for analysis in forensic cases.     

Sexual Dimorphism of Maxillary Sinus Dimensions Using Cone‐Beam Computed Tomography

Sex determination of unknown persons plays an important role in forensic medicine. Cone‐beam computed tomography (CBCT) is an excellent imaging modality for accurate measurement of maxillary sinus dimensions. This study aimed to evaluate whether maxillary sinus measurements on CBCT scans can be applied for sex determination. The width, length, and height of maxillary sinuses in CBCT images of 100 patients (50 males and 50 females) were measured. Student's t‐test and discriminant function analysis were used to compare differences in the measured parameters between males and females. The correct predictive accuracy rate of sex determination was 78% in females and 74% in males with overall accuracy of 76%. Based on discriminant analysis, the most pronounced variable in differentiation of sex groups was maxillary sinus height. This study suggests that maxillary sinus measurements can be valuable for sex determination in forensic investigation, especially for cases in which other traditional methods are not applicable.     

Sex assessment using measurements of the first lumbar vertebra

Sex determination is a vital part of the medico-legal system but can be difficult in cases where the integrity of the body has been compromised. The purpose of this study was to develop a technique for sex assessment from measurements of the first lumber vertebrate. Twenty-nine linear measurements and five ratios were collected from 113 Chinese adult males and 97 Chinese adult females using digital three-dimensional anthropometry methods. By using discriminant analysis, we found that 23 linear measurements and two ratios identified sexual dimorphism (P<0.01), with predictive accuracy ranging from 57.1% to 86.6%. Using a stepwise method of discriminant function analysis, we found three dimensions predicted sex with 88.6% accuracy: (a) upper end-plate width (EPWu), (b) left pedicle height (PHl), and (c) middle end-plate depth (EPDm). This study shows that a single first lumber vertebra can be used for this purpose, and that the discriminant equation will help forensic determination of sex in the Chinese population.     

Sex determination by discriminant analysis of patella measurements

The authors have analyzed 80 skeletons (40 males and 40 females) from the collection at the Institute of Legal Medicine of the University of Bari belonging to a known contemporary Southern Italian population; time of death was around 1970 and ages ranged from 25 to 80 years. Seven measurements taken on 80 intact, undeformed right patellae (max height, max width, thickness, height and width of the external facies articularis, height and width of the internal facies articularis) were used to determine sex by multivariate discriminant analysis. One function associating two parameters (max width and thickness) obtained the highest value of correct sex determination with a rate of 83.8%; other functions showed a higher percentage of misclassification (up to 17.5%). This study tests the success rate of correct sex prediction based exclusively on patellar dimensions. The discriminant functions carried out by statistical analysis may aid the forensic anthropologist when no other human skeletal remains suitable for sex determination are available.     

Morphometrics of the hyoid bone for human sex determination from digital photographs

The identification of unknown remains is very important. When unknown remains are found, anthropologists first determine their sex and age. The sex of most skeletons is determined by their shape. In the hyoid bone, the shape is sex related, so it can be used forensically to determine the sex. This study focused on sex-based morphometry of the hyoid bone in Koreans using digital photographs. Hyoid bones from 52 males and 33 females were examined. For each subject, we took 34 measurements from photographs using a computer program, and the data were analyzed statistically using SPSS 11.0. Twenty-one of 34 measurements had significant sex differences (p<0.05). The discriminant functions based on three measurements (X(1)-X(3)) were as follows: The accuracy of discriminant functions is 88.2% in both groups, so these can be used to distinguish males from females in a statistically significant manner.     

Sexual Dimorphism of the Arm Bones in a Modern Greek Population

Abstract: Several studies have shown that sex determination methods based on measurements of the skeleton are population specific. Metric traits of the long bones of the arm have been reported as reliable indicators of sex. This study was designed to determine whether the three long bones of the arm can be used for sex determination on a skeletal population from Greece. The material used consists of the arm bones of 204 adult individuals (111 males and 93 females) coming from the Modern Human Skeletal Collection of the University of Athens. The age range is 19–96 years for males and 20–99 years for females. The maximum lengths and epiphyseal widths were measured in the long bones of the arm (humerus, radius, and ulna). The discriminant analysis of the metrical data of each long bone gave very high discrimination accuracies. The rate of correct sex discrimination based on different long bones ranges from 90.30% (ulna) to 95.70% (humerus). In addition, intra‐ and inter‐observer error tests were performed. These indicated that replication of measurements was satisfactory for the same observer over time and between observers. The results of this study show that metric characteristics of the arm bones can be used for the determination of sex in skeletal remains from Greece and that bone dimensions are population specific.     

Sexual dimorphism of the calcaneus of South African blacks

Forensic anthropology is a rapidly growing field in South Africa and skeletal biologists are often called upon by the police to assist in personal identification from skeletal remains, which are recovered in suspected cases of homicide and suicide and in mass disaster. Measurements of the calcaneus have been shown to be sexually dimorphic in South African whites. Since the validity of discriminant function equations in sex determination is population specific, the aim of the present study was to derive similar equations for the calcanei of the South African blacks. The bones that were used in this study were obtained from the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons, School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. One hundred and sixteen (116) intact and non-pathological calcanei, consisting of 58 males and 58 females and belonging to individuals whose age at death ranged between 22 and 75 years, were selected by the simple random sampling technique. The measured variables included the maximum length, the load arm length, the dorsal articular facet length, the body height, the maximum height, the cuboidal facet height, the middle breadth, the dorsal articular facet breadth and the maximum breadth. Discriminant function analyses were done using the Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) program. All measured parameters of the calcaneus showed significant sexual differences. Length measurements were found to be the most sexually dimorphic. Combinations of variables provided better estimate of sex (79%-86%) than individual variables (64%-79%).     

Identification of sex depending on radiological examination of foot and patella

Forensic anthropology involves the building of an antemortem profile of an individual from skeletal remains. This includes sex, race determination, and age and stature estimation. Because most bones that are conventionally used for sex determination are often recovered either in a fragmented or incomplete state, it has become necessary to use denser bones that are often recovered intact, eg, the patella, calcaneus, and talus. The present work was performed to investigate the possibility of estimation of sex from some radiologic measurements among a known cross-section of Egyptian population. In this study lateral and anteroposterior radiographs of the right foot and knee were made on 160 living unfractured and nonpathologic individuals comprising 80 males and 80 females aged 25 to 65 years referred to the Radiology Department of Assiut University Hospital. Two measurements on right patella (maximum height and maximum width) and 2 measurements of metatarsal bones (length and midshaft diameter), were used to determine sex by univariate and multivariate discriminant analysis. Eighty radiographs of foot and patella of individuals not used in the original sample were randomly selected to test the accuracy of this method. The study revealed that significant sex differences were demonstrated based on these measurements taken on metatarsal bones more than on patella. One function associating 2 parameters (length and midshaft) of the third metatarsal bone obtained the highest value of correct sex determination with rate of 100% accuracy. The multivariate function associating length of the first, third, and fifth metatarsal bones and midshaft of first, second, and fifth metatarsal gave 100% accuracy. Test of multivariate function on the independent sample revealed a correct classification of 87.5%.     

Sexual Dimorphism in Ulna: An Osteometric Study from India

Determination of sex constitutes the most important element during the identification process of human skeletal remains. Several sex‐specific features of human skeleton have been exploited for sex determination with varying reliability. This study aims to obtain sexual dimorphic standards for ulnae of the north Indian population. Eight measurements were obtained on a sample of 106 ulnae (males‐80, females‐26) in the age range of 25–65 years. The sexual dimorphism index and demarking points were calculated for all the variables. The data were then subjected to stepwise and direct discriminant function analysis. The best discriminator of sex was the maximum length (84.9%) followed by radial notch width (84%). In stepwise analysis, these two variables were selected and provided an accuracy of 88.7% (M‐87.5%, F‐92.3%). The proximal end provided a classification rate of 81.1% (M‐80%, F‐84.6%) with selection of the notch length and olecranon width.     

活体跟骨数字X线片性别判定

目的应用数字X线摄影方法测量跟骨,评估5项测量指标在法医学性别判定中的价值。方法393例受试对象随机分组,实验组334例(男性148例,女性186例),验证组59例(男性26例,女性33例)。每一受试对象按照规定投照方法摄跟骨侧位DR片,分别测量5项跟骨长度指标。方差分析检验实验组各项指标性别间差异,Fisher判别分析及多元逐步判别分析建立性别判别函数。验证组样本数据回代,前瞻性评估判别效能。结果5项指标性别差异有统计学意义(P<0.001)。共建立了6组性别判别函数,性别判断正确率在78.4%～88.9%之间;回代检验,判断正确率在79.7%～86.4%之间。结论跟骨侧位数字X线片5项长度测量指标代入判别函数进行性别判定的方法可为法医学个人识别中的性别判定提供帮助。     

Sex Determination Using the Second Cervical Vertebra—A Test of the Method*

Abstract: Sex is one of the critical questions addressed when unidentified skeletal remains are discovered in forensic or archeological contexts. Continuous testing and re‐evaluation of existing techniques is essential to improve accuracy and precision. The Wescott (J Forensic Sci 2000; 45 (2):462–6) method of sex determination from dimensions of the second cervical vertebra was blind‐tested on 153 adult individuals from the Spitalfields documented collection of human skeletal remains held at the Natural History Museum, London. Significant sex differences were determined for all dimensions measured (independent two‐sample t‐test, p < 0.05–0.001). The discriminant functions developed by Wescott were shown to have an overall accuracy of classification of 76.99%. Using stepwise discriminant analysis, a discriminant function based on the Spitalfields data correctly classified sex in 83.3% of individuals and was able to classify males and females with equal accuracy. Additional discriminant functions are presented for use in instances where preservation of the second cervical vertebra is poor.     

Sex determination of Chinese femur by discriminant function

The objective of this study was to provide a method of sex determination for Chinese femur, especially for fragmentary remains. Statistical analysis of 17 measurements based on 141 northeastern Chinese femora shows that all measurements have significant sex differences. Sex determination by the midpoint method of a single measurement can obtain an average accuracy of 76.8%. The results indicate that of all dimensions the maximum head diameter is the best discriminator of sex. It alone can determine the sex of a femur with 85.1% accuracy. The results also show that maximum head diameter, transverse head diameter, epicondylar breadth, upper breadth, and medial condylar length have higher sexual dimorphisms than the dimensions of length. According to the result to stepwise discriminant analysis and the need for sexing fragmentary remains, 22 discriminant functions composed of various combinations of variables were calculated which can determine the sex of the femur correctly 82.3 to 87.2%. The methods of sex determination provided by this paper can be used to sex poorly preserved femora.