Ego development in the college years: Two longitudinal studies

Students from a two-year and a five-year college were tested twice at four-and four-and-a-half-year intervals using the Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development. In both samples retest scores were positively correlated with initial scores (0.39 and 0.49) and were significantly higher in ego level (typically a half-stage). These data are consistent with the developmental hypothesis that ego growth occurs according to a fixed sequence of stages, and suggest that rate of growth decreases with age. In one sample women were higher in ego level than men at the beginning of the study, but in neither sample were sex differences significant at retest.     

A longitudinal study of moral and ego development in young adults

The purpose of this study was to investigate the longitudinal changes in moral judgment and ego development in a young adult sample when a concurrent measure of verbal ability was used as a statistical control. Sixty-one late adolescents and young adults, representing three educational groups, were tested in 1977 and 1979 on the Defining Issues Tests, a measure of moral judgment (Rest), the Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development (Loevinger and Wessler) and Terman's Concept Mastery Test, a measure of verbal ability. No group or time differences were found in ego development. A significant increase was found between the 1977 and 1979 moral judgment scores,p<0.05, and between groups at both testing,p<0.001. Sex differences were found,p<0.01, with females scoring higher than males, which were statistically accounted for by verbal ability. These findings suggest that moral development continues into the young adult years and that verbal ability may moderate sex differences in moral judgment.     

Relationship among ego identity status,field-independence,and traditional femininity

Fifty-five senior college women were given an ego identity status interview, two measures of field-independence (the Embedded Figures Test and figure drawings), and the Gough Femininity Scale. A significant relationship was found between ego identity status and field-independence, as measured by the EFT. Women in those identity statuses defined by occupational, ideological, and sexual commitment (Achievement and Foreclosure) were significantly more field-independent than women in those statuses which were not committed to elements of psychosocial identity (Moratorium and Diffusion). There was a trend toward a significant relationship between ego identity status and traditional femininity. No relationship was found between field-independence and traditional femininity.     

Beeping children and adolescents: A method for studying time use and daily experience

This paper evaluates the effectiveness of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) among preadolescents and young adolescents by examining its implementation in a study of 483 5th–9th graders. Four specific methodological questions are addressed: (1) How adequate is the sampling of adolescents? (2) How adequate is the sampling of adolescents' experiences? (3) Does the method alter the phenomenon it attempts to measure? (4) How valid are the data obtained? Methodological information collected as part of the study suggests that the data obtained by the ESM accurately represents most of the experience of most of the individuals in the sample population.     

Relationship status: Scales for assessing the vitality of late adolescents' relationships with their parents

Three criteria for assessing relationship status were proposed: self-disclosure despite the risk of parental disapproval; openness to critical feedback from parents; constructive confrontation when angry with parents. These concepts were operationalized as narratives of nine interpersonal dilemmas, to which late adolescents responded by indicating “What would you do if you were in this situation?” Reliable example-anchored scales were constructed from the responses of one sample of college students and then cross-validated with two other samples. Social class had a significant but small effect on the relationship status scores; but age and sex of adolescent and sex of parent did not. The patterns of correlations of the Relationship Status Scales among themselves and with the Parent-Child Relations Questionnaire, the College Self-Expression Scale, the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale, and Hogan's Empathy Scale were interpreted as evidence of construct validity.     

Social support factors and drinking among college student males

The present investigation focused on social support and social competence among male college freshmen and the relation of these variables to alcohol use and psychological adjustment. Recent critical analyses of the social support literature suggest that studies in this area have generally failed to distinguish between different modes of support. Therefore, measures pertaining to possible dimensions of the social support construct (i.e., social network characteristics and perceived social support) were administered to 137 male college freshmen, along with a measure of social competence, and these data were factor analyzed. As a result, three interpretable factors were identified: Network Functions, Perceived Intimacy/Support, and Social Competence. Measures representing social network characteristics (e.g., network size, density, amount of social contact), perceived support, and social competence were used to predict alcohol use and psychological symptomatology. Results indicated that alcohol use was positively related to social network characteristics that reflect high levels of social interaction (e.g., network density, amount of social contact) and measures of social competence. Drinking was not significantly related to measures of perceived social support. Psychological symptomatology was negatively related to measures of perceived support, social competence, and network density. Thus, this study concludes that different modes of support and different measures of psychological adjustment should not be treated as if they are equivalent. And this study reaffirms a growing concern that the social context provides frequent opportunities for alcohol use and abuse in a college community.     

Adolescent fears: Some Caribbean findings

A total of 657 adolescents (12–15 years) in Barbados provided responses to the question, “Is there anything you are really scared or afraid of?” Most frequently named fears were of three main types: fear of injury or death of self or loved ones, sexual concerns, and fears associated with school failure. However, certain other fears usually reported as relatively infrequent among adolescents in industrialized countries, such as fear of the dark, fear of walking lonely roads, and fear of animals, were also prominent, and reflect local geographical and cultural conditions. The influence of the media was also evident: many students were concerned about nuclear war, or held somewhat exaggerated fear of certain threats to personal safety (for example, being killed) given actual local incidence levels. From a guidance and counseling perspective, the data particularly highlight the need for improved sex and family life education.     

Diffusion within Marcia's identity-status paradigm: Does it foreshadow academic problems?

The present investigation attempted to ascertain longitudinally whether diffuseness about academic goals and plans would predict subsequent underachievement. Identity-status interviews were administered to 98 firstsemester college students. Their grade point averages (GPA) were obtained for their first six semesters in college. SAT and conceptual-level scores were used to generate predicted GPAs. Underachievement was operationally defined as a positive discrepancy between predicted-minus-observed GPA: underachievement=predicted observed GPA. Evidence for the hypothesized relationship between diffusion and academic underachievement was not found. To the contrary, Diffusions during their freshman year showed a tendency for relativeoverachievement (predicted observed GPA). The possibility of heterogeneity within Marcia's diffusion status was considered. Some diffuselike individuals may see their current lack of commitment and concern as a hiatus, whereas others may be truly unconcerned and myopic about their lives. A significant association between foreclosure and underachievement was found when the subjects were freshmen. This relationship was not replicated with an independent sample of 90 high school students. A post hoc interpretation focused on differences between transient and long-term Foreclosures and the role that the college environment may potentially play in instigating personal identity crises. The need for longitudinal tests on this account is underscored.     

Aggression,deviance, and personality adaptation as antecedents and consequences of alienation and involvement in high school

Alienation from, or involvement in, the social and educational systems of the high school are investigated in an effort to determine the extent that school experiences may influence aggressive and deviant behavior in school and personality styles or orientations. Drawing upon longitudinal data collected from 250 boys followed from grades 8 through 12, potential antecedent-consequence relationships between dimensions of alienation and involvement and these two basic types of student outcomes are examined by cross-lagged panel analyses. Differences between cross-lagged panel correlations provide evidence that student reactions and attachments to school manifest relationships with aggression, deviance, and personality, serving as both antecedents and consequences of these student adaptations. The major findings provide evidence that (1) boys who more frequently break school rules and engage in aggressive or deviant behavior may often come to have more negative attitudes toward school staff and less involvement in school; and (2) student involvement and participation in school life can influence certain aspects of adolescent personality. Possible evidence of reciprocal causation is presented and discussed, as are additional theoretical and methodological implications of the data.     

Demographic Marginalization,Social Integration,and Adolescents’ Educational Success

Links between schools’ demographic composition and students’ achievement have been a major policy interest for decades. Using a racially/ethnically diverse sample from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 6,302; 54 % females; 53 % White, 21 % African American, 15 % Latino, 8 % Asian American, 2 % other race/ethnicity), we examined the associations between demographic marginalization, students’ later social integration (loneliness at school, school attachment), and educational performance and attainment. Adolescents who were socioeconomically marginalized at school [i.e., having <15 % same-socioeconomic status (SES) peers] had lower cumulative grade point averages across high school and lower educational attainment. A similar disadvantage was observed among students who were both socioeconomically and racially/ethnically marginalized at school (i.e., having <15 % same-SES peers and <15 % same-racial/ethnic peers). Indirect effects were also observed, such that demographic marginalization was linked to poorer school attachment, and poorer school attachment, in turn, was related to poorer academic performance. These results highlight the educational barriers associated with demographic marginalization and suggest potential targets for future intervention efforts.     

Gender differences in self-reported moral reasoning: A review and new evidence

Sixty-four undergraduates wrote responses to the question, “When faced with a moral dilemma, what issues or concerns influence your decision?” The responses were coded according to one or more of 13 themes by independent raters blind to the subjects' gender. Six of the themes were identified as “feminine” themes and seven as “masculine” themes on the basis of previous work by Gilligan ([1982],In a Different Voice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts), Kohlberg ([1976], “Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach,” in Lickona, T. [ed.],Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research, and social Issues, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York), and others. Only one association between gender and the presence of any given theme reached statistical significance: Thus, there is little evidence to support the idea that men and women differ in their reports of how they think about moral dilemmas. For all subjects, the average proportion of possible feminine themes in a response was higher than the proportion of possible masculine themes. This finding supports the idea than an exclusive focus on themes such as rights and responsibilities will fail to capture many of the considerations all subjects regard as most important.     

Types of neutralization and types of delinquency

Neutralization theory was tested with questionnaires administered to a random sample of public school students (N=298) and institutionalized male delinquents (N=53). Nye-Short delinquency items were factor analyzed to yield three dimensions of delinquency (Predatory, Minor, and Aggressive), and each of the five techniques of neutralization was scored separately. Patterns of acceptance of neutralization techniques were similar among high school males, high school females, and institutionalized males. For example, all three subsamples scored highest on Detail of a Victim and lowest on Appeal to Higher Loyalties. Correlations between each technique of neutralization and each type of delinquency, however, were statistically significant and quite dissimilar. Within the three subsamples, however, there were no discernible patterns among these dissimilar correlations. In fact, few of the differences among these correlations were statistically significant. The analysis provides general support for neutralization theory, but indicates that the particular technique of neutralization as well as the particular type of delinquent act may be viable distinctions in delinquency research.     

Invited Commentary: Broadening the Evidence for Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health and Education in the United States

Scientific research has made major contributions to adolescent health by providing insights into factors that influence it and by defining ways to improve it. However, US adolescent sexual and reproductive health policies—particularly sexuality health education policies and programs—have not benefited from the full scope of scientific understanding. From 1998 to 2009, federal funding for sexuality education focused almost exclusively on ineffective and scientifically inaccurate abstinence-only-until-marriage (AOUM) programs. Since 2010, the largest source of federal funding for sexual health education has been the “tier 1” funding of the Office of Adolescent Health’s Teen Pregnancy Prevention Initiative. To be eligible for such funds, public and private entities must choose from a list of 35 programs that have been designated as “evidence-based” interventions (EBIs), determined based on their effectiveness at preventing teen pregnancies, reducing sexually transmitted infections, or reducing rates of sexual risk behaviors (i.e., sexual activity, contraceptive use, or number of partners). Although the transition from primarily AOUM to EBI is important progress, this definition of evidence is narrow and ignores factors known to play key roles in adolescent sexual and reproductive health. Important bodies of evidence are not treated as part of the essential evidence base, including research on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and questioning (LGBTQ) youth; gender; and economic inequalities and health. These bodies of evidence underscore the need for sexual health education to approach adolescent sexuality holistically, to be inclusive of all youth, and to address and mitigate the impact of structural inequities. We provide recommendations to improve US sexual health education and to strengthen the translation of science into programs and policy.     

Evaluative research on a therapeutic community for adolescents

Findings from a 2-year research effort assessing the efficacy of the Young People's Unit (YPU) of Friends Hospital are presented. In one study, 79 patients were tested with the Offer Self-image Questionnaire for Adolescents (OSIQ) at the time of their admission to the YPU and at the time of their discharge (50 days later on the average). Data indicate significant improvements on all 11 scales of the OSIQ, but some subgroups improved more than others. A representative sample of 29 patients responded to a third administration of the OSIQ approximately 1 year after their discharge. As a group, these patients had maintained their level of improvement — there were no significant differences between discharge and followup OSIQs. Augmenting the followup sample through telephone contacts, 59 former patients could be separated into 44 treatment successes and 15 less well-adjusted adolescents: no significant differences on their admission OSIQs or on their demographic characteristics could be found. The findings permit the conclusion that the residential treatment approach used here can produce significant improvements which are stable over time, at least for the group as a whole, but that some exceptions exist. Further studies into the reasons for treatment failure are needed. Implications of this research for the reassessment of the unit are discussed.     

Correlates of drug abuse in adolescents: A comparison of families of drug abusers with families of nondrug abusers

This study was designed to compare drug-abusing adolescents and their families with nondrug-abusing adolescents and their families by (1) a comparison of the adolescents on measures of self-esteem and perceived parental behavior, (2) a comparison of the parents of drug-abusing adolescents with the parents of nondrug-abusing adolescents on child-rearing attitudes and on distortion in perceived parental behavior, and (3) an identification of the salient factors contributing to the prediction of drug-use in adolescents. The subjects in this study were 26 clinical inpatient drug-abusing adolescents and their parents and 26 nondrug-abusing adolescents and their parents. Testdata consisted of the adolescent's self-esteem score on the Self Esteem Inventory (SEI), the adolescent's factor score on the Child's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory—Revised (CRPBI-R), and the parents' scale score on each of the five factors of the Parent Attitude Survey (PAS). Findings indicate that the adolescent's self-esteem and perception of parental behavior, the ability of the parents to predict the child's parental perceptions, and the professed parental attitudes toward confidence and responsibility in child rearing all combine to suggest a set of factors differentiating the drug-abusing adolescent from the nondrug-abusing adolescent.