20世纪汉语声调演变研究综述

20世纪汉语声调演变的研究集中于声调起源、声调的历时演变和共时演变三方面。汉语声调的起源有韵尾说和声母说。声调的历时演变集中于调类研究，中古后的演变开始着手调值研究。声调共时演变研究还不多，研究的视点是演变类型和演变条件。汉语声调演变研究存在的主要问题是历时不成线，共时不成片。     

The legal ethics of pediatric research

Since the mid- to late 1990s, the scientific and medical research community has sought to increase its access to healthy children for research protocols that involve harm or a risk of harm. This move reverses longstanding policy within that community generally to exclude healthy children from such protocols on the grounds that the research as to them is non-therapeutic, that they are particularly vulnerable to research-related abuses, and that they are unable themselves to give informed consent to their participation. The research community's new posture has been supported by prominent pediatric bioethicists who have argued that unless healthy children are included as research subjects in harmful or risky research, the pediatric population will continue to suffer relative to the adult population in the extent to which it benefits from modern advances in science and medicine. In their view, it is possible for the research community to self-administer a rule that strikes a balance between protecting healthy children from research-related abuses and allowing their inclusion in cutting-edge pediatric research. In this scheme, parental consent is central to the research community's claims about child protection. This Article explores the flaws inherent in this ethics of pediatric research. Specifically, it challenges the view from ethics that the law permits parents to consent to their children's inclusion in harmful or risky research to the extent that related invasions would meet legal maltreatment standards. More broadly, it challenges the movement to increase access to healthy children for harmful and risky research on the ground that it risks two important regressions: First, in its willingness to risk harm to individual children in the interests of the group, it threatens the progress the law has made in its development of the concept of the child as an individual worthy of respect in his or her own right, a concept that imagines parents as fiduciaries and that includes strong protections against invasions of bodily integrity. Second, in its failure to assure that the burdens of non-therapeutic research are not placed disproportionately on children of lower socioeconomic and minority status, it violates the antidiscrimination principle, which has only begun to make good on its promise of equal treatment for all children. Ultimately, this Article argues that harmonization of the rules governing pediatric research with the law of child protection and parents' consent authority is the best way to assure that children are protected in the research setting in these respects and to the same extent they are otherwise in the society.     

Tasks of research in forensic medicine - different study types in clinical research and forensic medicine

In the last years the research output of forensic medicine has sometimes been regarded as insufficient and as of poor quality, especially when parameters as impact factors and external funding were taken into account. However, forensic medicine has different tasks compared to clinical medicine. The main difference between basic subjects, clinical and forensic medicine is not a lack of scientific efficiency in forensic medicine but is a result of the questions asked, the available methods and specific aims. In contrast to natural-scientific research, forensic science has furthermore important intersections with arts and socio-scientific disciplines. Etiologic and pathogenetic research is of only limited relevance in forensic medicine. Thus, forensic medicine is excluded from these research fields, which are mainly supported by external funding. In forensic medicine research mainly means applied research regarding findings, the probative value and reconstruction as well as examination at different points of intersection between medicine and law. Clinical types of research such as controlled randomised, prospective cross-sectional, cohort or case-control studies can only rarely be applied in forensic medicine due to the area specific research fields (e.g. thantatology, violent death, vitality, traffic medicine, analytical toxicology, hemogenetics and stain analysis). The types of studies which are successfully established in forensic medicine are comparison of methods, sensitivity studies, validation of methods, kinetic examinations etc. Tasks of research in forensic medicine and study types, which may be applied will be addressed.     

Misusing informed consent: a critique of limitations on research subjects' access to genetic research results

Express denials of access to genetic research results are being drafted into consent instruments. Some commentators suggest that the principle of beneficence can justify such a denial of access. This paper provides an ethical and legal critique of the use of consent instruments to disclaim responsibility for on-going disclosure by genetic researchers. Currently, the law of torts provides only weak protection for on-going disclosure for research subjects. The most substantive rights are to be found in the law of fiduciary obligations. The author concludes that, notwithstanding arguments to the contrary, there should be a presumption of disclosure in genetic research, unless the research subject elects otherwise. The author outlines one possible exception to this general presumption.     

Judicial use of social science research

American courts use social science research in three distinct ways: to make law, to determine facts, and to provide context. In this article, we review and critique the approaches that courts have traditionally taken to dealing with each form of social research. We also summarize and integrate a body of work offering a different perspective that treats law-making research associal authority, fact-finding research associal fact, and context-providing research associal framework. We end by proposing a coherent sequence of steps that courts should take when confronted with an empirical question about human behavior.This article was prepared under the auspices of the Task Force on Judicial and Regulatory Decisionmaking of the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government. The views expressed are those of the authors rather than of the Task Force or the Commission. We are grateful to David Z. Beckler, Associate Director, for his comments. Requests for reprints should be sent to either author at the School of Law, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22901.     

Cross-cultural research and the role of anthropology in criminal justice

This study involves the application of traditional perspectives from anthropology to an examination of criminal justice research. The survey of several samples of published research confirms the paucity of criminal justice research in non-Western settings. Moreover, most of the reported research is not broadly representative, having been concentrated in a few non-Western countries. The implications of these findings for criminal justice education, research and theory are discussed, as are means for promoting cross-cultural research. The concepts of holistic and traditional comparative criminal justice are contrasted.     

Protection of incapacitated elderly in medical research

The widened scope of medical research has resulted in the establishment of multiple international, European and national rules and norms. Firm regulation of medical research is especially important when vulnerable people like incapacitated elderly are involved. The protection of incapacitated elderly is at stake when rules and norms are multi-interpretable, unclear and conflicting.     

Tax-exempt bonds and sponsored research

"Sponsored research," wherein a business corporation or the government pays a portion of the cost of research activities carried out by a university or hospital, is increasingly important both for state institutions and for Section 510(c)(3) organizations. Sponsored research arrangements that are not properly structured can jeopardize the status of tax-exempt bonds issued to finance the facility at which the sponsored research occurs. While these rules have been difficult to apply in practice, properly structured agreements can provide funding for research without undue risk. This Article discusses the multiple pieces of guidance put forth by the Internal Revenue Service to clarify the many issues and tiers of analysis necessary to ensure a properly-structured sponsored research agreement.     

Privacy and research involving humans

Human research ethics committees in Australia are required to consider compliance with privacy law as an element of the ethics of research. Recent legislation has introduced federal private sector privacy protection, as well as privacy protection at State and Territory levels. In Victoria, which is used as an example in this article, State privacy legislation covers public sector information and health records. This article considers the implications for research involving human participants and for ethics committees of the new privacy regimes. Although privacy law is a potential barrier to research about humans, the need for exceptions has been dealt with effectively in the context of medical or health research. However, privacy law and its chilling effect could potentially be a serious impediment to some forms of non-health-related research, such as social and socio-legal research.     

Recovering from research: a no-fault proposal to compensate injured research participants

National advisory committees have considered the obligations owed to research participants in the event of research-related injuries. These committees have repeatedly concluded that injured research participants are entitled to compensation for their injuries, that the tort system provides inadequate remedies, and that the United States should adopt no-fault compensation. But because the advisory committees have made no concrete proposals and have taken no steps toward implementing no-fault compensation, the United States continues to rely on the tort system to compensate injured research participants. This Article argues that recent legal developments and a transformation in the global research landscape make maintaining the status quo morally indefensible and practically unsustainable. Recent legal developments exacerbate the longstanding difficulties associated with the tort system as a method of compensation; nearly every injured research participant will have difficulty recovering damages, and certain classes of injured research participants--those in federal research and those abroad--are prevented from recovering altogether, resulting in substantial unfairness. In the past ten years, many of the countries substantially involved in research have mandated systematic compensation. By not mandating compensation, the United States has become a moral outlier and risks having its noncompliant research embargoed by foreign ethics committees, thereby delaying important biomedical advances. This Article examines alternative compensation mechanisms and offers a concrete no-fault compensation proposal built on systems already in place. The proposed system can be implemented in the United States and countries around the world to help harmonize various national compensation systems and to more equitably and effectively make those injured by research whole.     

The governance of human genetic research databases in mental health research

The field of mental health offers a valuable context in which to examine new challenges presented by human genetic research databases to the legal, ethical and regulatory frameworks for human genetic research. Longitudinal prospective genetic research of psychiatric disorders often involves access to human genetic research databases and to stored tissue for future uses that cannot be specified at the time the patient consents to their collection. The potential of such research to contribute to an improved understanding and treatment of complex genetic diseases such as schizophrenia presupposes sound ethical, legal and regulatory frameworks to ensure public trust and preparedness to participate in such research. This article provides a brief overview of some of the ethical and legal challenges posed by human genetic research databases and their implications for how genetic research should be conducted in the field of mental health.     

Ethical and legal issues in suicide research

Moralist, libertarian and relativist ethical positions concerning suicide and its prevention are presented in order to clarify premises upon which ethical issues in suicide research may be resolved. Ethical concerns are differentiated from legal considerations and the implications of the vulnerability of suicidology research participants are discussed. Specific issues that arise in design, choice of participants, interpretation, diffusion of results and evaluative research are treated. These include: experimental methodologies, obtaining informed consent, deception and disclosure, studying innovative and unproven interventions, unknown consequences of participation, rescue criteria, disclosure of information to third parties, research with special populations, risks in publicizing results and measuring the value of human life. When specific legal obligations are lacking, ethical premises concerning the acceptability of suicide and obligations to intervene may influence research protocols.     

Innovating from big science research

Increasing scientific knowledge demands technological breakthroughs beyond industrial innovation activity. Using this as a basic motivation for R&D collaboration between industry and big science, the paper reports a systematic approach to exploit the technological treasures embedded in experimental basic research. Based on a systematic technology breakdown and mapping of each technological trajectory with possible application areas, the method enables one to direct joint efforts on the most prominent research topics. Yet, to achieve this active partners are needed to enter the innovative conversion process to turn scientific ambitions into commercial products. Some industrial companies practicing active R&D strategy have realized this, and the paper outlines some cases where the product innovation, is not the only motivation to enter big science collaboration. Putting all this together, and knowing the severe financial and political pressures the major scientific research labs are facing, the paper defines the practical procedures needed to initiate the process which eventually leads to better technological return from fundamental research.     

Incidental findings in human subjects research: what do investigators owe research participants?

The use of brain imaging technology as a common tool of research has spawned concern and debate over how investigators should respond to incidental findings discovered in the course of research. In this article, we argue that investigators have an obligation to respond to incidental findings in view of their entering into a professional relationship with research participants in which they are granted privileged access to private information with potential relevance to participants' health. We discuss the scope and limits of this professional obligation to respond to incidental findings, bearing in mind that the relationship between investigators and research participants differs fundamentally from the doctor-patient relationship.     

Rethinking risk in pediatric research

This article reviews four areas of pediatric research in which we have identified questionable levels of allowable risk, exceeding those foreseen by the Commission. They are the following: (1) the categorization of increasingly risky interventions as minimal risk in a variety of protocols; (2) the increasing number of applications for federal panel review of research not otherwise approvable because of higher projected risk levels; (3) research on asymptomatic at risk children; and (4) the inclusion of children and adolescents in placebo-controlled trials for participants of all ages without performing subgroup analysis. While embracing the imperative to include children in research is an encouraging step towards providing the pediatric population with effective medical care and finally eradicating the therapeutic orphan, we must ensure that this research does not become overly permissive.     

University supply and corporate demand for academic research

University research is an important contributor to corporate innovation, but corporate-sponsored research has lagged other forms of research expenditure since 2000 and is perceived to be sub-optimal. This paper first examines and interprets reasons given by industry participants for this relative underperformance. It next establishes the complexity of this issue by explicating different patterns of research relationships for four industry groups. University supply of research and industry demand are both affected by internal factors that create inherent limits to these activities. The paper concludes that proactive measures by universities are the most feasible steps under current conditions to enhance corporate-sponsored university research.     

Compelled disclosure of research data

Voluntary data sharing among psychologists will minimize the need for courts to compel disclosure of research information. A review of recent federal court decisions indicates that disclosure of research data from other disciplines has been compelled by subpoena when the data are relevant to the central issue of the litigation and require independent verification. Voluntary sharing of data among psychologists will minimize the need for compelled disclosure by permitting independent verification of the methodology and findings. Professional organizations can assist by encouraging voluntary data sharing and by serving as neutral intermediaries to minimize disruption when disclosure is compelled.     

Accountability by design in technology research

What does research look like in practice? Aside from popular assumptions of how researchers are lonely isolated individuals sitting disconnected from the rest of the world enmeshed in thought, a considerable part of research involves working with data. Whether this data is quantitative, qualitative, gathered through experiments or involves writing code, all of this data is not just magically ‘invented’ out of thin air, but instead develops in a process of interaction with both human beings and technical systems. However only a small fragment of this process is presented to outside reviewers, the outputs and the framing often specifically designed to make a specific point. How the author got there, and which assumptions were made on the way and how these assumptions developed over time is seldom included in the final write-up. The following article argues that rather than just providing output data to be considered in research – or providing explanations for technical outcomes as is frequently proposed in computer science, accountability can only be developed by better understanding the research process. In order to do this, we suggest a series of mechanisms that can be built into existing research practices to make them more intelligible to outside reviewers and scholars. These mechanisms are designed to develop the accountability principle of the GDPR and ensure more accountable scientific research. As the GDPR recitals also explicitly references scientific research, an accountability by design approach to technology research is grounded both in the articles and recitals of the GDPR. By documenting the key elements of a narrative research story which explains not just what you believe to have discovered but also how researchers got there, it may also be possible to create better accountability mechanisms.     

Implications of twin research for legal issues involving young twins

Twin studies have generated numerous findings that have had substantial impact upon research conducted in psychological and medical science disciplines. Twin research has, however, been underutilized utilized as an information base relevant to decision making in the legal domain. Current empirical knowledge of twins and the various legal issues for which they offer implications are reviewed. Selected case studies of young twins, illustrative of a meaningful relationship between twin research and the legal field, are presented. A research program to further address issues raised by the collaborative efforts of twin investigators and legal experts is proposed.     

Procedural justice research

During the past decade the study of the psychology of procedural justice has become well established within the field of justice. It has been widely found that people are as concerned with the fairness of the way decisions are made as they are with the fairness of those decisions (i.e., distributive justice). This paper identifies the questions which have dominated research on procedural justice during the past decade, discusses the conclusions which have been reached about those questions, and suggests important areas for future exploration by procedural justice researchers.