Walking the line: Specialized and standard probation officer perspectives on supervising probationers with serious mental illnesses

Specialized probation programs were developed to more effectively address the unique needs of probationers with serious mental illnesses. Probation officers are tasked with serving both law enforcement and rehabilitative functions, and officers play an important gatekeeper function in helping probationers with serious mental illnesses avoid long incarceration sentences. The purpose of this paper was to explore specialized and standard probation officers' work in supervising probationers with serious mental illnesses. Twenty-one probation officers (11 specialized and 10 standard) participated in semi-structured interviews. Qualitative analyses examined: 1 — beliefs on the relationship between mental illness and crime; 2 — purpose of specialized and standard probation units; and 3 — approaches to supervising probationers with serious mental illnesses. Implications for developing more effective probation supervision programs are discussed.     

The social,relational and mental health characteristics of justice-involved men in the south-west England

The aim of this article is to describe the social, relational and mental health characteristics of a sample of offenders serving prison or community sentences in the south-west England. About 100 adult male offenders were screened for anxiety and depressive disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), drug and alcohol dependence, and likely personality disorder using validated instruments. Fifty-eight per cent of the sample reported at least one common mental health problem, of these only 26% reported receiving treatment. Participants exposed to traumatic events and/or participants with past mental health problems were more likely to score positive for current common mental health problems. Our study identified factors that may increase the risk of a first episode or recurrent anxiety and/or depression for offenders. Health and criminal justice services should create partnerships and develop interventions that address the risk factors which lead and/or contribute to offenders' mental health difficulties.     

The effect on reconviction of an intervention for drink-driving offenders in the community

This study reports an evaluation of the Drink-Impaired Drivers program in the English and Welsh probation service. Participants were adult male offenders who had been convicted of a drink-driving offence and were serving community sentences. The 1-year drink-drive reconviction rates were compared for offenders who completed the program, offenders who started but did not complete the program, and a comparison group who were not allocated to the program. At 1-year follow-up, there was no reconviction among offenders who had completed the program. Multivariate analysis showed that the noncompleters had a significantly higher rate of reconviction than the completers and comparison group.     

Probation absconders: A unique risk group?

While examination of probation violations is common in the literature, probationers who abscond from community supervision have rarely been examined. These violators are circumventing justice and may pose a serious risk to public safety. This article compares the characteristics of absconders to those of offenders who successfully completed probation and offenders revoked from probation because of other violations. Absconders and revoked probationers generally presented the least favorable risk profiles, but did not differ significantly from one another on probation conditions, “stakes in conformity,” or prior felonies—although revoked probationers had more misdemeanors and a younger age of onset for officially recorded crime. Combined with the violation behaviors of absconders while on probation, these similarities suggest a strong chance of being revoked to prison had absconders remained under supervision. Employment, recorded address changes, and lower supervision burden on offenders were among the best predictors of successfully completing probation versus absconding.     

Short-term outcomes for offenders with mental illness released from incarceration

Using data on 247 offenders with mental illness, this analysis seeks to identify characteristics that distinguish those who are returned to prison or a psychiatric hospital with those who remain in the community. Sociodemographic, mental health, criminal history, and service variables are compared across a range of outcome categories with a focus on those reinstitutionalized and those reincarcerated. Those returning to institutions have somewhat different mental health service and criminal justice histories than the engaged/community group. In particular, the group that is reincarcerated is more likely released from misdemeanor sentences, and the group being released from felony sentences is more likely to be found in a psychiatric hospital after release from correctional custody. These findings have implications regarding the cumulative effects of engagement with the criminal justice system and the process through which persons with mental illness and a criminal history cycle through institutions.     

WHO SHOULD GO AND WHO SHOULD STAY

The need for more efficient use of probation services is widely accepted. Indeed, many offenders are being incarcerated who might have been better served on probation. However, the percentage of incarcerated offenders who perhaps should have been retained in the community has been open to question The purpose of this study was to provide a bench mark as to the percentage of incarcerated offenders who might be better served on probation.     

White collar offenders under community supervision

This article presents an analysis of the beliefs held by federal probation officers concerning their role in supervising white collar offenders. The major finding is that this supervision is regarded by most officers as “going through the motions.” It is suggested that this attitude is in part due to the class standing and lifestyle of the typical white collar offender as it is perceived by probation officers. The question raised is whether community supervision of white collar offenders makes any sense, especially given the interactional patterns that typically develop between white collar offenders and their probation officers, which may facilitate denial of criminality by these offenders.     

Screening for mental disorder using the UK national offender assessment system

Probation officers have large caseloads with high levels of psychiatric morbidity but receive minimal training in recognising/managing mental health problems. In the UK, there is no national screening procedure for mental illness among offenders that is considered effective. This study’s aim was to develop a screening system for mental/personality disorders using the Offender Assessment System. Seven screens for mental disorder were developed using items from assessments on 574 prisoners: alcohol misuse, drug dependence, antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy, learning difficulties, psychosis and severe mood disturbance. Internal validation showed that the screens performed well across accuracy estimates. Prevalence of mental disorders identified with the screens in test and validation samples was similar. However, the psychopathy and severe mood disturbance screens may be more effective in screening for true negatives. The screens are an economical method for prioritising mental health needs of the UK prison and probation population using routinely collected data.     

Experiences of probation supervision in Hong Kong: Listening to the young adult probationers

The aim of this article is to report some of the qualitative findings generated from a recent research on probation in Hong Kong. It explores subjective views and experiences of probation supervision from the young adult offender's point of view. Recently there was an increasing emphasis on probation research and improvement, thereby identifying what works or otherwise in rehabilitating offenders and reducing their re-offending. Nonetheless, the role of offenders was largely neglected as service recipients or ‘customers’ in commenting on the usefulness of a penal measure. Offenders are excluded from being asked for their opinions as citizens. Conversely, this study allowed probationers to talk about their experiences of probation supervision in Hong Kong in semi-structured interviews. Their first-hand accounts indicated that probationers had much to contribute to the evaluation process and their voices should be heard by practitioners and policymakers in order to improve probation practice.     

The impact of ethnicity on probation recommendations and dispositions in Israel

The criminal justice system in Israel provides probation services to Arab and Jewish offenders. In adult probation, the administrative structure is integrated, but the probation officers are of the same ethnicity as the offenders. Previous research in the juvenile courts has uncovered a tendency toward harsher recommendations for Arab delinquents in presentence reports. The present study examines both recommendations and dispositions for a sample of 208 young adult offenders. With severity of instant offense and prior record controlled the findings indicate that Arab defendants are less likely to be recommended for probation, less likely to be granted probation, and more likely to be sent to prison when not granted probation. The Arab probation officers' more conservative recommendations may reflect their identification with the Arab community at the expense of traditional casework values. This inequality is amplified by the sentencing practices of the courts.     

Depressed but not legally mentally impaired

This article examines the mental impairment (insanity) defense in the Australian state of Victoria and argues that the defense is successful only when offenders suffer from psychotic mental illnesses. This raises the question about how non-psychotic offenders are dealt with by the courts when they claim ‘mental impairment’ for serious acts of violence such as homicide, particularly when a relatively large number of perpetrators involved in homicide suffer from non-psychotic illnesses like depression. The analysis shows that depressive illnesses do not reach the threshold for mental impairment (legal insanity) such that they mitigate violent criminal behavior, although they can, arguably, diminish culpability. This article draws upon existing literature, qualitative analysis of two court cases and semi-structured interviews with four legal representatives to make its conclusions.     

Reconsidering Domestic Violence Recidivism: Conditioned Effects of Legal Controls by Individual and Aggregate Levels of Stake in Conformity

Social scientists examining whether stake in conformity conditions the deterrent effect of arrest for domestic violence recidivism have applied criminological theory to an important criminal justice issue. We extend this research with a discussion and multi-level analysis of the possible interplay between court dispositions and (a) an offender's stake in conformity, and (b) the proportion of higher stake residents in an offender's census tract of residence. The prevalence of re-arrest for intimate assault (misdemeanor and felony) is examined for 3110 suspects of misdemeanor intimate assault in Cincinnati. Findings reveal a significant main effect involving higher re-arrest likelihoods for arrested suspects with no formal charges filed against them. Results for the conditioned effects of court dispositions reveal significantly lower re-arrest likelihoods for higher stake offenders undergoing a counseling program (a predicted relationship), and significantly lower re-arrest likelihoods for lower stake offenders serving probation and/or jail (opposite to the predicted relationship). At the neighborhood-level, sentences of probation and/or jail correspond with significantly lower re-arrest likelihoods for offenders living in neighborhoods with more residentially stable populations (as predicted). We discuss the implications of our study for future research.     

Reducing criminal recidivism: evaluation of Citizenship, an evidence-based probation supervision process

‘Citizenship’ is a structured probation supervision program based on ‘what works’ principles, designed for offenders on community orders or licenses supervised within the UK National Probation Service. The program was evaluated using survival analysis comparing the reconvictions of a cohort of all offenders in one probation area eligible for Citizenship over a 2-year period (n = 3,819) with those of a retrospective cohort of all eligible offenders in the same probation area receiving ‘traditional’ probation supervision (n = 2,110), controlling for risk related factors. At the 2-year stage, 50% of offenders in the comparison group had reoffended compared to 41% in the experimental group, and the difference between the survival curves was statistically significant. The hazard ratio was 0.69, which represents a 31% reduction in reconvictions in the experimental group over the proportion in the comparison group at any given time. Time to violation of a supervision order or post custody license was also statistically significantly longer in the experimental group. A key element of the program, promoting contact with community support agencies, was statistically significantly related to reduced reoffending in the Citizenship group. The overall effects remained after controlling for differences in risk scores although effectiveness varied by risk level. Contrary to other ‘what works’ research findings, the program was found to be most effective across the low–medium and medium–high risk thresholds, and was not effective with the highest risk group. This difference can be explained and is discussed in terms of risk, need, and responsivity principles. The Citizenship program was found to be cost-beneficial.     

Punishment and Paperwork: White-Collar Offenders Under Community Supervision

This article examines how changes in penal ideology may affect the experiences of white-collar offenders under community supervision. In-depth interviews with white-collar offenders on their experiences while under federal probation are used to examine how changes in criminal punishment have undermined the traditional reintegrative and rehabilitative goals of community supervision. The analysis suggests that shifts to a more managerial, actuarial model that seeks depersonalized efficiency has unintended consequences that delegitimatize the criminal justice system, and foster sentiments of degradation. Based on these findings, considerations for future research are discussed.     

Psychosocial characteristics of criminals committing incest and other sex offenses: a survey in a Taiwanese prison

The purpose of this study was to investigate the psychosocial characteristics of criminals who had committed incest or other sexual offenses. The participants, 240 criminals serving sentences for sex offenses in a Taiwanese prison, were divided into two groups: incest offenders (20.4%) and other sex offenders (79.6%). The psychosocial characteristics taken into consideration included age, parental survival, education, marital status, previous crime records, drug and alcohol abuse, diagnosed mental disorders, and victim abuse at the time of the offense. After an analysis of the data, the authors concluded that even though incest offenders showed fewer mental disorders, they needed psychiatric treatment and that this treatment should be focused not only on their mental disorder and related symptoms but especially to correct their abnormal behavior. Also, attention should be given to their psychosocial characteristics.     

Electronic supervision for sex offenders: Implications for work load, supervision goals, versatility, and policymaking

Electronic monitoring strategies are being used increasingly for sex offenders across the United States. Despite this increased use, few researchers have considered the broader implications for probation and parole officers when these tools are used. In this study, attention was given to how the use of electronic monitoring for sex offenders is related to supervision goals, work load, the use of other supervision strategies, and state level policies. Findings showed significant differences in several areas. The conclusion focuses on community corrections policy implications.     

The benefit and cost of prison in the UK. The results of a model of lifetime re-offending

With prisons in the UK reaching full capacity, and with similar trends in other European countries and the USA, there is much political debate about the efficacy of prison and community sentences. This paper aims to inform this debate by testing the hypothesis that prisons are an effective and efficient way of reducing re-offending. A rapid review of effectiveness studies was performed to determine the relative impact of prison and community sentences on re-offending. An economic analysis was undertaken to transform the estimates of effect into estimates of the economic efficiency of alternative sentencing options in the context of the UK. When compared with standard prison sentences, a number of community-based interventions and enhancements of standard prison sentences were found to save money, both for the public sector and for society more broadly. Diverting adult offenders from standard prison sentences to alternative interventions saves the UK public sector between ￡19,000 and ￡88,000 per offender. When victim costs are considered, diverting offenders from standard prison sentences saves UK society between ￡17,500 and ￡203,000 per offender. It was concluded that standard prison sentences are not an economically efficient means for reducing re-offending.

The parole performance of offenders released from shock incarceration (boot camp prisons): A survival time analysis

The parole performance of offenders who were released after successfully completing a shock incarceration program was examined and compared to the performance of offenders who were serving time on probation or parole after a period of incarceration. Separate survival analyses were performed for recidivism as measured by (1) arrests and (2) failures (jailed, absconded, or revoked). Prior incarceration, age, age at first arrest, and risk assessment score were related to recidivism but type of sentence was not. Intensity of supervision was significantly related to recidivism but this relationship was eliminated when risk level was controlled. There was no evidence that shock incarceration reduces recidivism. Future research should focus on methods of reducing failures during community supervision for these young, nonviolent offenders within the framework of either a shock incarceration program or some other sentence.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the American Probation and Parole Association 14th Annual Training Institute, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, August 1989.     

Mental health specialized probation caseloads: Are they effective?

With the large and growing number of persons with mental illnesses under probation supervision, a form of specialized probation called specialized mental health caseload (SMHC) has been implemented. This study explores the effectiveness of a prototypic SMHC implemented statewide. A quasi-experimental design was used to compare criminal justice, mental health, and community engagement outcomes among three caseloads: a newly established SMHC supervising no more than 30 clients per officer (N = 1367); an established SMHC supervising roughly 50 clients per officer (N = 495); and a traditional caseload of clients receiving mental health treatment and supervised by officers with average caseloads of over 130 clients (N = 5453). Using a mixed methods approach, we found that the SMHC was implemented with high adherence to fidelity, and comparisons based on different caseload samples generally support the effectiveness of the specialized mental health caseload, particularly on criminal justice outcomes. Future studies using random assignment are needed to examine the connection among mental health symptoms, compliance with treatment and probation supervision, and recidivism.     

Discounting Women: Context Matters in Risk and Need Assessment

Widely used risk/need assessment instruments assume that female offender risks for recidivism are essentially equivalent to those of male offenders. A look at the lives of female and male offenders reveals that there are important differences in the context of both offending and re-offending. This research draws on both quantitative and qualitative data to explore the effectiveness of a well known risk instrument to both predict recidivism and potentially direct intervention efforts. The results, particularly the in-depth interviews with offenders (both male and female) serving time on parole or felony probation reveal differences not detected by most contemporary risk and need assessment instruments. Ultimately, the gendered links among physical and sexual abuse, drugs, and crime are missed in risk and need assessments, thereby placing female offenders at risk for neglect and criminalization in an otherwise seemingly objective method of assessment.