The stalking victim's decision to contact the police: A test of Gottfredson and Gottfredson's theory of criminal justice decision making

There is a significant body of research exploring the reporting behaviors of crime victims. Much of this literature has focused on specific types of victimization (e.g., sexual assault) and the correlates of victim reporting. Recently, the crimes of stalking and cyberstalking have received empirical attention; however, few studies have examined the reporting behaviors of victims of these crimes. Using the theoretical framework proposed by Gottfredson and Gottfredson (1988), the current study explored how offense seriousness, the victim-offender relationship, and the prior record of the offender influenced a victim's decision to contact the police. Data were drawn from the 2006 stalking supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey, which examined stalking in the United States. Results offered support to Gottfredson and Gottfredson (1988) and highlighted the significance of understanding the reporting behaviors for this sample of crime victims. Differences in reporting for victims of stalking and cyberstalking were also examined.     

Self-protective behaviors and injury in domestic violence situations: does it hurt to fight back?

Research examining the impact of self-protective behaviors on outcomes in nonsexual assaults involving intimates has focused solely on one mainstream sample (National Crime Victimization Survey) in which violence is a relatively rare event. Using the Women's Experience of Violence (WEV) project which collects data from a sample of incarcerated women, we explored the phenomenon of self-protective behaviors to assess whether their use impacts the probability and severity of subsequent injury during a domestic violence incident. In addition to utilizing a unique sample, we considered an alternative operationalization of self-protective behaviors that separates physical and verbal responses to include whether the behavior involved an element of force. Results suggest some similarities between a mainstream sample and our marginalized sample. Namely, the frequency in which they utilize countermeasures and the effect of "fighting back" appear to be consistent with previous research. However, the more nuanced categorization of self-protective behaviors demonstrates the importance of considering whether the strategy was forceful when examining women's responses to violence.     

Is cyberstalking different?

Abstract

Very little empirical work exists on cyberstalking. The current study analysed detailed questionnaires completed by 1051 self-defined stalking victims. Almost half (47.5%) reported harassment via the Internet, but only 7.2% of the sample was judged to have been cyberstalked. Ordinal regression analyses of four groups of victims, categorized according to degree of cyber involvement in their victimization, revealed a general picture of similarity between the groups in terms of the stalking process, responses to being stalked, and the effects on victims and third parties. It was concluded that cyberstalking does not fundamentally differ from traditional, proximal stalking, that online harassment does not necessarily hold broad appeal to stalkers, and that those who target ex-intimates remain the most populous stalker type.     

Predicting the occurrence of stalking in relationships characterized by domestic violence

A high correlation has been found between domestic violence and stalking. However, very few studies have examined what factors predict the occurrence of stalking in relationships characterized by domestic violence. Using in-depth interviews with victims of domestic violence whose cases have gone through the criminal justice system, this article explores this issue. It was found that experiences of stalking by their abusers were very prevalent in this group of domestic violence victims. In terms of predicting stalking, domestic violence victims who were not in a relationship with their abuser, whose abusers had an alcohol or drug problem, who experienced more controlling behaviors by their abusers, and who had experienced prior stalking by their abusers were at the greatest risk of experiencing more severe stalking. Implications for intervention are discussed.     

Cyberstalking versus off-line stalking in a forensic sample

There is relatively little empirical research into cyberstalking and most published research reports data from samples of cyberstalking victims. The current study aimed to fill a gap in the literature by comparing 36 cyberstalking offenders with an age and gender matched sample of 36 off-line stalkers (average age 37 years, 94% male) to investigate differences in demographic, clinical and behavioural characteristics. Non-parametric analyses showed few between-group differences, although cyberstalkers were more likely to be ex-intimate partners (75% vs. 47%, χ² = 5.84, p = .02, φ = .28) and less likely to approach their victims (56% vs. 78%, χ² = 4.00, p = .05, φ = ?.24). The majority of cyberstalkers also used off-line stalking tactics. Examination of specific cyberstalking behaviours suggested that cyberstalkers with different motivations used the Internet in distinct ways. These results support broad conclusions from previous research indicating that there are relatively few differences between cyberstalkers and off-line stalkers. Once the motivation of the stalker is considered, treatment and management strategies for cyberstalking and off-line stalking are likely to be similar.     

An investigation of anonymous and spoof SMS resources used for the purposes of cyberstalking

In 2012, the United Kingdom actively sought to tackle acts of stalking through amendments to the Protection from Harassment Act 1997. Now, not only is stalking a recognised criminal offence, acts associated with stalking behaviour have finally been properly defined in legislation. Further, the role of technology in digital stalking offences, frequently termed as acts of cyberstalking, has been duly highlighted. The prosecution of such cyberstalking offences is reliant on the forensic analysis of devices capable of communication with a victim, in order to identify the offender and evidence the offending content for presentation to a court of law. However, with the recent proliferation of anonymous communication services, it is becoming increasingly difficult for digital forensic specialists to analyse and detect the origin of stalking messages, particularly those involving mobile devices. This article identifies the legal factors involved, along with a scenario-based investigation of sample anonymous and spoof SMS (Short Message Service) messages, documenting the evidence that remains on a victim's handset for the purpose of locating an offender, which often may be minimal or non-existent.     

REASONS FOR REPORTING AND NOT REPORTING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE TO THE POLICE*

The National Crime Victimization Survey is used to examine factors that encourage and inhibit victims of domestic violence from calling the police. Victims of domestic violence are less likely than victims of other types of violence to call the police because of their privacy concerns, their fear of reprisal, and their desire to protect offenders, but they are more likely to call for self‐protection and because they perceive domestic assaults as more serious. As a result of these and other offsetting factors, victims of domestic violence are just as likely as other victims of assault to call the police.     

Stalking in the Context of Domestic Violence

Abstract

This article examines the effect of criminal justice intervention in domestic violence on stalking in that relationship. Almost two hundred female victims of misdemeanor domestic violence in three jurisdictions were interviewed three times after their cases had closed. Qualitative interviews were conducted with a subsample of 21 victims who had experience with stalking. Specific court outcomes in domestic violence cases and whether or not the victim cooperated with the prosecution do not impact whether or not a domestic violence victim experiences subsequent stalking. Women who experienced stalking in addition to domestic violence were more likely to use the system in the future than women who just experienced domestic violence. The qualitative interviews revealed additional findings regarding victims' opinions of the criminal justice response to stalking in the context of domestic violence.     

Disentangling the Effects of Self-Protective Behaviors on the Risk of Injury in Assaults Against Women

Using data from the National Crime Victimization Survey, this paper attempts to disentangle the effects of self-protective behaviors on the risk of injury in assaults against women. Unlike previous research, in this study we address simultaneously three important conceptual and methodological issues: (1) type of self-protective behavior, (2) temporal sequencing of self-protective behavior in relation to injury, and (3) the victim/offender relationship. Results indicate that even after controlling for other contextual characteristics of an assault, the probability of a woman being injured was lowest when she employed non-physical resistance strategies such as arguing or reasoning with the offender. This was true for all types of offenders. However, for assaults involving intimates, the probability of injury was increased for women who physically resisted their attackers.     

Identifying predictors of negative psychological reactions to stalking victimization

Victims of stalking often experience a number of negative psychological problems including such things as fear, symptoms of depression, and anger. However, research on factors that lead to these outcomes is limited. The goal of this study was to first identify distinct subgroups of stalking victims based on measures of psychological problems resulting from being stalked. Once identified, the next step was to examine the influence of demographic and stalking-related variables on the probability of subgroup membership. The results revealed that respondents who were female, had a prior relationship with the stalker, experienced a greater variety of stalking behaviors, were divorced/separated, and reported receiving government assistance were more likely to be classified into subgroups characterized by a high probability of experiencing multiple negative outcomes.     

New Trends in the Criminalization of Stalking in the EU Member States

Article 34 of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence obliges signatory states to criminalize stalking. This article provides an inventory of criminal anti-stalking legislation in the 28 EU Member States in order to see whether they live up to this obligation. Although the number of Member States with dedicated legislation has increased significantly (n = 21) there are some questionable trends, such as the proliferation of criminal provisions which require the victim to have experienced fear or distress or an inclusion of an exhaustive list of stalking tactics. Although the states are not in evident violation of article 34 their perception of what constitutes stalking sometimes deviates from the intentions of the Convention.     

How do Traditional Bullying and Cyberbullying Victimization Affect Fear and Coping among Students? An Application of General Strain Theory

School bullying victimization represents an important type of strain (or stressful event) experienced by individuals because it usually occurs frequently, over a long period of time, and is an intentional violation against another person. The current study utilizes the 2009 School Crime Supplement (SCS) of the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) to assess the effect of bullying victimization on avoidance behaviors and carrying weapons to school. This study also examines how bullying victimization affects fear and whether this emotion mediates the relationship between victimization and outcomes. As expected, traditional bullying and cyberbullying increase the likelihood of fear. In addition, traditional bullying and cyberbullying victimization increase the likelihood of avoidance behaviors and bringing a weapon to school. Contrary to expectations, fear did not mediate the relationship between bullying and coping behaviors.     

Post-Relationship Stalking: The Experience of Victims With and Without History of Partner Abuse

This article analyses a side of the post-relationship stalking that has been neglected: the experience of women that were victims of this type of violence without having any history of abuse during their prior relationship. It analyses the differences between post-relationship stalking victims with and without history of partner abuse on what concerns to suffered stalking dynamics, emotional answers and types of coping strategies. This survey gathered data using online resources and the sample was constituted by 107 female post-intimate stalking victims. Results revealed that victims who were targets of past violence suffered a more serious post-relationship stalking campaign. Results also demonstrated that fear towards stalking behaviours is an endemic response when dealing with such experiences. Post-relationship stalking victims, in general, have also revealed being actives in coping with their individual experiences of victimisation.     

Fighting fire with fire: The effects of victim resistance in intimate versus stranger perpetrated assaults against females

The consequences of violence against woman are myriad, ranging from extreme psychological trauma to severe physical injury and even death. Utilizing the National Crime Victimization Survey, this paper explored the extent to which victim resistance, either physical or verbal/passive, during an assault differentially produced injury between intimate and stranger perpetrated assaults. It was found that female victims of assaults perpetrated by intimates were nearly twice as likely to sustain injury if they used either physical or verbal self-protective behavior. The only significant predictor of injury sustained by female victims of stranger perpetrated assaults, however, was presence of a weapon.     

The Consequences of the COVID-19 Lockdown on Stalking Victimisation

Stalking involves repeated unwanted communication, harassment, and intrusive behaviour. This brief report draws on a service evaluation undertaken immediately prior to and during the 2020 COVID-19 crisis. The pandemic creates a paradox when considering safety in the home, but it is important to recognise the dangers this presents to many victims of stalking. The information presented in this report is based on existing literature and early evidence from semi-structured interviews and discussions with 15 victims and six practitioners. Whilst lockdown measures might appear to be a time when victims are less accessible to their stalkers, early evidence from this study suggests that their vulnerability is increased. Technology has helped to facilitate stalking behaviours by providing stalkers with new approaches to control, humiliate, threaten and isolate their victims. Some lockdown restrictions have provided increased opportunities for stalkers to monitor their victims and the professional uncertainty and recognition around stalking has continued, coupled with delays in the criminal justice system. The COVID-19 crisis has reversed gains made by stalking victims and has imprisoned some victims in their homes making their whereabouts easier to monitor. Stalking behaviour has not ceased as a result of the COVID-19 restrictions and the risk of harm to victims remains significant. Effective practice, policy and legal responses are required for both the victims and perpetrators of stalking during the pandemic and afterwards.

     

Stalking acknowledgement and reporting among college women experiencing intrusive behaviors: Implications for the emergence of a “classic stalking case”

Research confirms the risk of victimization faced by women who attend the nation's universities. While stalking began to receive heightened attention in the 1990s, relative to other types of victimization, research regarding college women's stalking experiences is in its infancy. In particular, relatively little is known about victim acknowledgement of stalking and the process whereby victims decide to report to police. Drawing upon data from 1,010 female university students, this study provided important advances in understanding stalking-related victimization for college women, highlighting the influences that fear, offender relationship, types of behaviors involved, and other victimization experiences have on victim acknowledgement and police reporting. Findings offered important advancements in defining a “classic stalking case.” This study had implications for university and public policymakers, educators, and police officers who could benefit from improved understanding of women's perceptions of stalking and their formal help-seeking behavior in response to stalking-related behavior.     

Career Dimensions of Stalking Victimization and Perpetration

Prior literature concerning stalking, particularly in the field of criminology, finds wide variation in fundamental trends regarding stalking victimization and perpetration. There seems to be little consensus regarding when and how stalking is manifested. Furthermore, prior research to date has not addressed the etiology of stalking‐related behaviors by applying principles from criminal career research, including participation, frequency, onset, and duration. The present study builds upon prior research by addressing trends in age of onset for stalking victimization and perpetration, the duration of stalking‐related behaviors, and the relationship between those behaviors and other types of crime over the life course using primary data from a sample of young adults. Findings indicate that stalking victimization and perpetration share important career attribute similarities, and that self‐reported history of intimate partner violence and sexual assault are strongly associated with stalking outcomes.     

What to do about stalking: a preliminary study of how stalking victims responded to stalking and their perceptions of the effectiveness of these actions☆

While stalking researchers have cataloged various strategies used by victims to deal with stalking, little research has examined whether these strategies have proven effective. Using data collected from undergraduates at a Midwestern university, we examined the effects of informal responses for victims of both violent and nonviolent stalking who responded to the stalker on their own and victims who enlisted the help of others. Findings indicated that victims who enlisted help from family and friends in their informal responses to the stalker were more successful in attenuating the effects of both violent and nonviolent stalking. Victims of stalking generally were more likely than nonvictims to feel that formal coping strategies were ineffective.     

‘Stalking’ – Seeking the victim's perspective

Abstract

The law has experienced great difficulty in defining ‘stalking’ and framing legislation to deal with the problem. There has been little research as to how the public in general and potential victims in particular view this phenomenon. In an effort to explore this issue, 80 women aged 18 to 55 years were invited to classify which of a range of intrusive behaviours were exemplars of stalking. A cluster analysis of the classification data showed a clear distinction between those which participants felt to be stalking and non-stalking related acts. Further, a number of distinct sub-categories of perceived stalking behaviours were suggested by the analysis. Participants were also asked to indicate whether they had first hood experience of any of these behaviours and to describe their worst personal experience of ‘stalking’. Analysis of this data suggested that instances of what our respondents perceived as ‘stalking’ was widespread in the sample and that some of its more serious manifestations would, if reported, have led to criminal charges. The difficulties of framing legislation, however, to define all the acts which our respondents saw as ‘stalking’ remain.     

Does Proposed Federal Cyberstalking Legislation Meet Constitutional Requirements?

As a microcosm of society, the Internet attracts some of the same undesirable elements that inhabit the offline world. Unfortunately "cyberstalkers" are among them. A proliferation of stories posted on the Internet and reported in the news, as well as an increase in cases handled by police computer crime units, indicate the problem is on the rise. This article explores current state and federal stalking laws in the United States, their application to cyberspace and First Amendment concerns related to cyberstalking legislation. The article suggests that the current federal stalking law is inadequate to deal with the growing problem of interstate cyberstalking, reviews two bills in Congress that would make interstate cyberstalking a crime and concludes that both bills would benefit from slight changes in wording to help them deflect constitutional challenges for vagueness and overbreadth and make them more effective.