Opportunity and Self-Control: Do they Predict Multiple Forms of Online Victimization?

This study investigates the predictors of four types of cybercrime victimization/experiences: online harassment, hacking, identity theft, and receiving nude photos or explicit content. The effects of victimization opportunity and low self-control are examined as the primary independent variables in logistic regression analyses of data collected from a large sample of undergraduates enrolled at two universities in the United States. Results suggest that opportunity is positively related to each of the four types of online victimization, and that low self-control is associated with person-based, but not computer-based, forms of cybercrime. These findings speak to the utility, and also the limitations, of these perspectives in understanding cybercrime victimization risk among college students, and to the potentially criminogenic nature of the Internet.

     

A Comparative Analysis of Cybercrimes and Governmental Law Enforcement in China and the United States

Cybercrime has become a growing national and international concern because of its potential for widespread and devastating financial impact. Gauging the effect of cybercrimes is extremely difficult because of its multi-faceted nature and evolving definitions, especially in cross-culture analyses. Using data generated from cybercrime reports from two leading national newspapers during the past ten years, this study compares major cybercrimes and law enforcement in China and the United States. Similarities and differences between the two nations are highlighted and policy implications are presented based on these findings.     

Developments in cybercrime law and practice in Ethiopia

With increasing access to information and communication technologies such as the Internet, Ethiopia has recently taken responsive legislative measures. One such legislative measure is enactment of cybercrime rules as part of the Criminal Code of 2004. These rules penalize three items of computer crimes namely hacking, dissemination of malware and denial of service attacks. The cybercrime rules are however slightly outdated due to changes that have occurred in the field of cybercrime since the enactment of the Code. The surge of new varieties of cybercrimes previously uncovered under the Code and the need to legislate tailored evidentiary and procedural rules for investigation and prosecution of cybercrimes have recently prompted the Ethiopian government to draft modern and comprehensive cybercrime legislation, but the draft law still needs further work on cybercrimes in light of other major legislative developments at regional and national levels. This article closely examines major developments in cybercrime law and practice in Ethiopia since the enactment of the first set of cybercrime rules and proffers recommendations towards a unified cybercrime regime.     

Cybercrimes in the Former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe: current status and key drivers

Some economies in the Former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe (FSU&CEE) are known as cybercrime hotspots. FSU&CEE economies have shown complex and varied responses to cybercrimes due partly to the differential incentives and pressures they face. This study builds upon literatures on white-collar crime, institutional theory and international relations (IR)/international political economy (IPE) perspectives to examine the low rates of prosecution and conviction of suspected cybercriminals in some economies in the FSU&CEE and variation in such rates across these economies. The findings indicate that cybercrime cases are more likely to be prosecuted and sanctions are imposed in economies that are characterized by a higher degree of cooperation and integration with the West. Cybercriminals are less likely to be jurisdictionally shielded in such economies. Our findings also suggest that a high degree of cooperation and integration with the West would lead to access to resources to enhance system capacity and law enforcement performance to fight cybercrimes.     

The Lion, the Dragon and the Wardrobe Guarding the Doorway to Information and Communications Privacy on the Internet: A Comparative Case Study of Hong Kong and Singapore - Two Differing Asian Approaches

Almost a decade ago, the electronic commerce revolution began,led by such companies as Amazon.com and Ebay.com. These companieshave grown into the internet business giants they are today,diversifying in the products they sell, the services they provideand the jurisdictions they conduct business in. However, asidefrom these rare examples, most medium and small internet-basedbusiness enterprises have grown with the dot.com bubble anddissolved when it burst mid-way through the decade. Now, atthe 10th Anniversary of Electronic Commerce, after we have seenthe dot.com way of doing business launch like a rocket and plungelike a comet, subsequently emerging into a more cautious, butno less potential, avenue of doing business, other challengesnow face the industry as a whole to retain and obtain customers.Internet users are becoming increasingly wary of online transactions.²The irony is that as internet users become technologically savvy,they also become more aware of the dangers which connectivityentails and this inhibits their online behaviour. Chief amongthese concerns, and second only to cybercrimes, is the maintenanceof privacy in the context of the protection of personal information,particularly from the unsavory elements trawling the cyberworld.For cyber-trade and the e-commerce market to grow, and for thecontinued efficiency and utility of the internet for G2C andB2C transactions,³ governments and industries must re-instillthe trust and confidence of internet users both in commercialand non-commercial interaction.⁴     

I have a Facebook account,therefore I am – authentication with social networks

ABSTRACT

Social login is the use of a social network account to get access to other services. Since the internet in its architecture does not have the possibility to identify the internet user, for many services, social logins are the solution to authenticate users without the need to set up individual identity management systems. Social logins are not useful for all types of services, however, and the potential lock-in and lock-out of users needs to be considered.     

Cybercrime: Towards an Assessment of its Nature and Impact

This paper discusses some approaches for a comprehensive analysis of cybercrime for both a better understanding of the phenomenon and policies to control it. We first discuss the nature of cybercrime, and review some of the related research issues. In view of its newness, we develop taxonomies for a more systematic classification of the different types of cybercrimes. Next, we explore some of the main empirical questions that need to be studied regarding cybercrime and describe some modeling approaches as well as the data requirements for a better understanding.     

Sentencing data-driven cybercrime. How data crime with cascading effects is tackled by UK courts

This paper contributes to research seeking to understand if and how legislation can effectively counter cybercrimes that compromise personal data. These ‘data crimes’, which are the ‘dark side’ of big data and the data economy enabled by cloud computing, display cascading effects, in that they empower disparate criminals to commit further crimes and victimise a broad range of individuals or data subjects. The paper addresses the under-researched area of sentencing, which, as the last step of the judicial process, plays a crucial role in how the law is interpreted and implemented.This paper investigates courts’ approach to the evolving technological environment of cybercrime captured by data crime and the cascade effect and whether the cascade effect can assist courts in dealing with data-driven cybercrime. The paper examines original data collected from UK courts, namely 17 sentencing remarks relating to cybercrime court cases decided in England & Wales between 2012 and 2019. The analysis shows that courts appreciate the impact of data crime and their cascading effects, but that the complexity of the offences is lost at sentencing, arguably due to the negative impact of systemic factors, such as technology neutral law and the lack of legal authorities.After examining such systemic factors, the paper suggests how the cascade effect could aid sentencing by adding specificity and context to data crime. The paper ends with avenues for further research relating to debates on fair cybercrime sentencing and open justice.     

The Dark Figure of Online Property Crime: Is Cyberspace Hiding a Crime Wave?

A pronounced drop in crime, since the early 1990s, has encompassed every crime category tracked by the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports, including property crime. However, over the same period, the rates of online property crime (OPC) have been on the rise according to available evidence. We delineate the extent of our knowledge and data concerning cybercrime and identity theft and, using data from several nationally representative victimization surveys, offer an alternative view of property crime trends while pointing out the glaring gap in crime reporting and accounting in relation to the growing category of property crimes perpetrated online. In addition, we compare estimated costs of traditional property crime vs. OPC. Finally, we identify the main challenges for obtaining reliable data on OPC and discuss their implications, especially when applying the traditional methods of compiling crime statistics.     

Presidential rhetoric on cybercrime: links to terrorism?

Abstract

Presidents often give speeches about crime issues as a way to convince the public that there are significant problems for which an easy solution can be found. Studies have shown that presidential rhetoric on crime not only influences the public’s perception of the problem, but also the perception of the best solution. More recent research has demonstrated that presidents sometimes draw on the public’s fear of crime as a way to further affect the public’s perception of crime. In other words, presidents link crime with the public’s anxiety about other fearful events as a way to further impact the public’s perception of a problem (and thus further their agenda). This study examines presidential rhetoric on cybercrime to determine if executives link cybercrime with other issues such as national security. The findings provide credibility to both Cavelty’s threat frames approach as well as assertions made regarding the politics of fear.     

Cybercrime Tendencies and Legislation in the Republic of Macedonia

The advancement of information and communication technologies opens new venues and ways for cybercriminals to commit crime. There are several different types of cybercrime offences that need to be treated in a separate and different manner. The major international source that provides guidelines for treatment of cybercrime is the Convention on Cybercrime adopted by the Council of Europe and the European Commission Action Plan. The purpose of the paper is to present, discuss and analyze the Macedonian legislation treating cybercrime, with respect to the specific cases typically encountered in practice and the international guidelines concerning cybercrime. The major source of cybercrime legislation in Macedonia is the Criminal Code with provisions thereof in ten of its articles; it addresses cybercrimes such as personal data abuse, copyright and piracy issues, production and distribution of child pornography, computer viruses, intrusions into computer systems, computer fraud and computer forgery. We also present and analyze reports on cybercrime complaints and victims from Macedonia, issued by the Internet Crime Complaint Center and the Macedonian Ministry of Internal Affairs. The reports reveal the unusually high number of complaints for perpetrators and victims originating from Macedonia. Furthermore, we highlight several recent cybercrime cases reported in Macedonia. All things considered, the Macedonian penal legislation is modern and it follows the current European and world standards. It provides guidelines for successful resolution of cybercrime committed in the Republic of Macedonia. However, it could be improved by a more active inclusion of Macedonian authorities in the global response to cybercrime and by stronger enforcement of cybercrime prevention measures and strategies.     

Transience and the disposition of theft cases in China

This research examines the relationship between transience and the disposition of criminal cases in an inquisitorial system. We describe the distinctive features of socialist legal theories, the justice process, and recent structural changes in China. The results of multivariate tobit analyses for a sample of court cases involving theft in China reveal that defendants' residency status has significant effects on pretrial detention, but not on sentencing outcomes. Further analyses of the possible conditional effect of offenders' residency status on case processing reveal that extralegal factors are weighed more heavily in detention decisions for transients, while legal factors are considered more strongly for residents. Pretrial detention influences sentencing outcomes, but only for transients. Policy implications and recommendations are discussed.     

Catching Cybercriminals: Policing the Internet

This article seeks to contribute to the existing debate(s) over the governance of cyberspace by focusing not upon legal frameworks, which have been already been the subject of much good work, but upon the enforcement of law. What is missing from much of the recent debate has been a substantive discussion of some of the practical problems of policing the Internet, such as by whom and how it should be (is being) policed. Such considerations are becoming increasingly important as the inhabitants of cyberspace multiply in number. It is argued that much of the debate over the policing of the Internet has tended to be driven by moral panics. As these panics subside it is becoming clear that there is clearly a confusion in the literature between the potential and actual harms that can be inflicted by cybercrimes. Consequently, we must be wary of reports which exaggerate the extent to which cybercrimes have proliferated, especially when those reports appear to originate from bodies who are currently engaged in the growing cybercrime industry. Furthermore, the legal problems appear to be less considerable as previously thought, especially with regard to the conflict of laws. This is not to say that there is not a problem, for there clearly is, but the article suggests that some of the undesirable behaviours will work themselves out, some will be eradicated by technology, whilst the remainder will continue to challenge our traditional understandings of crimes and deviant behaviours and the way that we police them. The first part of this article will look briefly at the growth of cybercrime: at what it is, who are the offenders and who are their victims. The second part will look at current models of policing the Internet and the third part will explore the appropriateness of the terrestrial policing model to the treatment of cybercrimes.     

Attributions of blame in a hypothetical internet solicitation case: Roles of victim naivety,parental neglect and respondent gender

Abstract

This study investigates attributions towards the perpetrator, the victim and the victim's parents in a hypothetical internet solicitation case. A community sample of 187 respondents read a vignette outlining an internet chatroom conversation between a 10-year-old girl and a 25-year-old man, followed by a depicted sexual assault, before rating 26 attribution items. Principal components analysis extracted six reliable and interpretable factors which were then subjected to a two-respondent gender×two-victim age×two-victim internet naivety×two-parental neglect between-subjects multiple analyses of variance (MANOVA). While levels of victim naivety had no impact on any measure, parents who were neglectful of their child's online activities were deemed more culpable for their child's later abuse than were parents who took an active interest in their child's activities. In general, females deemed the victim more credible than males. Implications are discussed.     

Cybercrime investigation in Finland

Nordic police cooperation concerning cybercrimes has been developed during the last few years, e.g. through the Nordic Computer Forensics Investigators (NCFI) and Nordplus training programmes. More empirical research is needed in order to enhance cybercrime investigation and address the training needs of police officers. There is a knowledge gap concerning organizational models for the police’s cybercrime investigation: How the function is organized, what the professional characteristics of the staff are and how to combine computer forensics with crime investigation? The purpose of this paper was to study the organization of cybercrime investigation in Finland. Data were collected by a questionnaire from all 11 local police districts and the National Bureau of Investigation in July–August 2014. In addition, six thematic interviews of cybercrime investigators were conducted in 2014. Three investigation models of computer integrity crimes were found: (1) Computer forensic investigators conduct the entire pre-trial examination, (2) Computer forensic investigators conduct only the computer forensics, and tactical investigation is done by an occasional investigator, (3) Computer forensic investigators conduct only the computer forensics and tactical investigation is centralized to designated investigators. The recognition of various organizational models and educational backgrounds of investigators will help to develop cybercrime investigation training.     

Exposure to internet pornography and sexually aggressive behaviour: protective roles of social support among Korean adolescents

ABSTRACT

Adolescents’ exposure to internet pornography and its negative effects on healthy sexual development have been extensively investigated. However, little research has addressed the identification of protective factors that can buffer these negative effects. Based on the conceptualisation of a stress-buffering model of social support, this study empirically tested whether social support would provide a buffer against negative effects of internet pornography on sexually aggressive behaviours in adolescents. Results from an online survey of two-hundred-ten (210) Korean high school students revealed that social support from parents and friends performed buffering roles, and the buffering effect of friend support was the strongest. Based on these results, practical implications for healthy adolescent sexual development were discussed.     

Theft in Sweden 1831?1998

This paper on theft in Sweden analyses crime and reactions to crime in non-individual, structural terms. The data used stems from Swedish convictions statistics which are available for the period since 1831. Swedish trends in theft convictions follow an international pattern with reductions during the second half of the 19th century and settling at a comparatively low level during the decades around the turn of the 20th century. A sharp occurred after the mid-1920s until the mid-1980s. Upon closer examination, this increase took the form of an S-curve whose course resembles that of goods production. One interpretation is that once a basic level of material security had been guaranteed, theft convictions followed the availability of goods; with more to consume, there is more to steal, and levels of control tend to diminish. Howthat ever, this interpretation may not apply to a smaller proportion of convictions ? those which concern persistent offenders. Their development differed in one decisive manner from that of casual offenders ? the steep rise is very sudden and occurred first after the Second World War. An explanation based on the relationship between livelihood, excessive alcohol consumption and theft is put forward.     

Cybercrime victimization among young people: a multi-nation study

This study examines cybercrime victimization, what some of the common characteristics of such crimes are and some of the general predictors of cybercrime victimization among teenagers and young adults. A combined four-country sample (Finland, US, Germany and UK; n = 3,506) is constructed from participants aged between 15 and 30 years old. According to the findings, online crime victimization is relatively uncommon (aggregate 6.5% of participants were victims). Slander and threat of violence were the most common forms of victimization and sexual harassment the least common. Male gender, younger age, immigrant background, urban residence, not living with parents, unemployment and less active offline social life were significant predictors for cybercrime victimization.