Fertility and migration in the heart of the industrial revolution

Using research into the formation of industrial populations in the nineteenth century, this article examines the relationships between immigration and natality in Tilleur, an exemplary locality for studying the industrial revolution in Belgium. The main purpose is to test the general hypothesis positing a distinction between a foundation phase and a maturation phase in the process through which an industrial population is formed. The results are a contribution to the debate about the beginning of the fertility transition in industrial cities, and its relations to differential nuptiality and fertility in light of spatial origins.     

‘Mixt marriages’: Ethnic and Religious Intermarriage among German-Speakers in Eighteenth-Century Pennsylvania

ABSTRACT

Civil and religious authorities in eighteenth-century America grew increasingly concerned over the freedom with which young people chose their marriage partners. Correlating racial, religious and cultural similarity in marriage to a stable society, these authorities attempted to limit marriage and sexual choices by requiring parental authority for marriage, distributing permits to a select few to perform marriages, and criminalizing racial miscegenation. Eighteenth-century Pennsylvania German authorities supported this attitude because they associated ethnic and religious out-marriage with the weakening of the body and the destruction of society. My study uses the marriage and birth records of eighteenth-century Pennsylvania Germans to examine their marriage and sexual relationships. I discovered that Pennsylvania Germans overwhelmingly chose to marry other German-speakers, out of proportion with their population. By examining the then available works on marriage and procreation, I discovered that Pennsylvania Germans read works that emphasized the necessity and importance of intra-ethnic and religious sex and marriage for the health of their children. Pennsylvania Germans chose their marriage partners in alignment with their community’s attitudes towards those of other ethnicities and religions. A small data set further suggests that relationships with non-Germans occurred but rarely became formalized. This complicates what we know about the sexual and emotional revolutions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; far from a linear progression of attitudes towards sex, marriage, and others, eighteenth-century Pennsylvania Germans expressed multiple, contextually-driven perspectives, and in the process they created and maintained strong ethnic communities.     

Marriage market in early modern Kyoto, 1843–1868

This study uses the population registers of 17 Kyoto neighborhoods to address marriage in Kyoto. Our analyses focus on the age differences between spouses and intermarriage between Kyoto natives and migrants from other provinces. Our previous analysis showed that the median age at marriage was tightly linked to life-cycle service in Kyoto with male and female ages at marriage corresponding to the end of the service period. Later analyses have shown that a third or more of the live-in employees listed as “servants” were migrants to Kyoto from other provinces, and males predominated in the migrants in the Kyoto population at ages after the service period ended. We find that migrants who remained in Kyoto married and all others left. We also find that those who remained were likely to marry Kyoto natives and the age differences between spouses was often relatively small.     

Marriage market in early modern Kyoto, 1843–1868

This study uses the population registers of 17 Kyoto neighborhoods to address marriage in Kyoto. Our analyses focus on the age differences between spouses and intermarriage between Kyoto natives and migrants from other provinces. Our previous analysis showed that the median age at marriage was tightly linked to life-cycle service in Kyoto with male and female ages at marriage corresponding to the end of the service period. Later analyses have shown that a third or more of the live-in employees listed as “servants” were migrants to Kyoto from other provinces, and males predominated in the migrants in the Kyoto population at ages after the service period ended. We find that migrants who remained in Kyoto married and all others left. We also find that those who remained were likely to marry Kyoto natives and the age differences between spouses was often relatively small.     

Gender differences and patterns of arrest across two generations of Cuban immigrants in the United States

The present study is based on a secondary-data analysis of a subsample of Cuban immigrants residing in the United States. While there are no significant differences in arrest rates between U.S. natives of Cuban descent and their foreign-born counterparts, life transitions have a differential impact on behavioral outcomes when young men and women of Cuban ancestry are compared. Job instability increases the risk of arrest for men, while being a single parent increases the risk of arrest for women. Growing up in a two-parent family and marriage have crime protective effects for men, while religiosity decreases the probability of arrest for women. In both subsamples, having a family member arrested was the strongest predictor of one’s arrest status in early adulthood.     

多角审视性别失衡与"缺失的女性"

性别失衡已成为我国一个严重的社会问题,性别失衡表现为人口不安全或人口自身状态恶化等危机的出现,而人口安全则是国家安全的重要的组成部分。形成性别失衡的原因复杂多样,其中深层原因是父系继承和女儿外嫁的隐性制度,根本原因是重男轻女,生男偏好的传统文化伦理因素,直接原因是产前胎儿性别鉴定和选择性别的人工终止妊娠手段的滥用。如果不及时预防和有效遏止,它引发未来的男性婚姻挤压和女性严重短缺等诸多社会矛盾,可能造成社会不稳定甚至动乱及危害国家人口安全等严重后果。对此,我们须通过多途径多手段提前干预和规制,如完善有关立法现有责任主体和相关责任追究制度、宣传倡导新型科学的生育文化、构建人口安全预警系统等,努力降低未来出生人口性别比和缓解我国男性婚姻挤压的矛盾。     

The age at marriage of migrants during the industrial revolution in the region of liège

The article examines the cities and towns in the Liège region during industrialization in the ninteenth century, focusing on the relationship between marriage, migration, and entry of people into urban areas. The average age at marriage was higher for in-migrants than for natives, but so was the intensity of nuptiality. Thus, the average age at marriage is not the sole statistic through which to approach questions about the socio-demographic consequences of arrival into town. Towns had several, seemingly closed, marriage markets, and it is important to pay attention to differential behaviors by taking this fact into account. Moreover, in-migration to an industrial city created opportunities to contract marriage, for women as well as men. Sometimes marriages occurred in the village, and were contracted to escape the old system and to prepare for the migration to the city of the young couple. Structural as well as life-course approaches must be combined for a thorough understanding of migration to industrializing cities.

Migrations and marriage: a survey

In numerous studies about the relationships between economic growth and demographic expansion, the dyad “migration-marriage” plays a classical role. In his famous thesis on the Austrasian basin, Wrigley (1961)(p. 133) pointed out the high level of overall fertility in industrial regions. Haines (1979)(pp. 245–247) proposed a complex of explanations that linked economic structure, a sex-differentiated pattern of migration, the structure of the matrimonial market, the potential contribution of women and children to the family economy, and differential in infant and child mortality according to occupation. While Haines's study was focused on populations engaged in mining and heavy industry, Desama (1985)(pp. 97–100, 265) analyzed the case of a textile town and concentrated on the effects of changes in age and sex structures on nuptiality. In the wool city of Verviers during the first part of the nineteenth century, the intensity and timing of marriage were negatively affected by migration flows dominated by young women, with the consequence that the total fertility rate declines as immigration grew. Working on nineteenth century English communities, Ben Moshe and Friedlander (1986) systematized these approaches, and concluded that socioeconomic factors remained more important than cultural ones.     

Assimilation and intermarriage for U.S. immigrant groups, 1880–1990

Marriage outside one's ethnic or racial group constitutes the ultimate test of assimilation. In this research, we offer a new test of theories of assimilation by examining the choice of marriage partners among Mexican Americans, several European immigrant groups, and natives. Data from the 1880 to 1990 Integrated Public Use Microdata Samples (IPUMS) are employed, augmented by additional identification procedures developed for the Hispanic population. Assimilation measured by intermarriage rates varies by ethnic origin with striking affinity in historical patterns for Italians and Mexicans. Density and location of ethnic settlement, sex ratios, and generational mix played a role. Continued immigration marks certain groups, such as Mexicans, as structurally distinct.     

From immigrants to stayers: Micro-demography of a historical lineage in Sichuan,China

This paper studies the demographic profiles of Chinese domestic immigrants during the Qing era, using the genealogy of one lineage in Sichuan, Yunyang Tu-shi Zupu. The genealogy records individual life history beginning with the immigrant ancestors to Sichuan. This study mainly uses the vital dates recorded in each member's individual entry to the genealogical table, analysing change in demographic indices over time and their causal relationship with individual/family characteristics. The micro-demographic analyses show that the fertility and nuptiality were initially high but on the decline over time while the mortality might have followed the opposite path. This result indicates that the founding generations of the lineage enjoyed a relatively rich life but living standard gradually deteriorated as population pressure on food production became strong. The differential of the initial and terminal generations can be regarded as that of immigrants and stayers. The demographic trend reported in the study shows the assimilation process of immigrant lineages to natives. The higher population growth rate of immigrants derived in this argument may help to mitigate the controversy of the high population growth during the Qing and the low fertility estimates obtained from sedentary populations in the previous studies.     

Assimilation and intermarriage for U.S. immigrant groups, 1880–1990

Marriage outside one's ethnic or racial group constitutes the ultimate test of assimilation. In this research, we offer a new test of theories of assimilation by examining the choice of marriage partners among Mexican Americans, several European immigrant groups, and natives. Data from the 1880 to 1990 Integrated Public Use Microdata Samples (IPUMS) are employed, augmented by additional identification procedures developed for the Hispanic population. Assimilation measured by intermarriage rates varies by ethnic origin with striking affinity in historical patterns for Italians and Mexicans. Density and location of ethnic settlement, sex ratios, and generational mix played a role. Continued immigration marks certain groups, such as Mexicans, as structurally distinct.     

The age at marriage of migrants during the industrial revolution in the region of liège

The articl7e examines the cities and towns in the Liège region during industrialization in the ninteenth century, focusing on the relationship between marriage, migration, and entry of people into urban areas. The average age at marriage was higher for in-migrants than for natives, but so was the intensity of nuptiality. Thus, the average age at marriage is not the sole statistic through which to approach questions about the socio-demographic consequences of arrival into town. Towns had several, seemingly closed, marriage markets, and it is important to pay attention to differential behaviors by taking this fact into account. Moreover, in-migration to an industrial city created opportunities to contract marriage, for women as well as men. Sometimes marriages occurred in the village, and were contracted to escape the old system and to prepare for the migration to the city of the young couple. Structural as well as life-course approaches must be combined for a thorough understanding of migration to industrializing cities.     

The Criminalization of Aliens: Regulating Foreigners

Intergroup contact and conflict is inevitable in the context of global economic competition and geopolitical interests. Immigrant and migratory groups have particularly been subjected to unequal treatment by members of dominant host groups, generally as a means of promoting and protecting their own economic and political interests. Immigrants often serve as a dependent and secondary labor force, useful within fluctuating cycles of labor shortage, economic crises, and economic prosperity. Likewise, criminalization is one tool that perpetuates notions of “otherness,” which in turn maintains immigrant minorities as a secondary labor force; and justifies penal punishment of them. For instance, in the United States, Chicanos and Mexican immigrants have been exploited as secondary labor, and have also been more likely than many other groups to be swept up in the Criminal Justice System. Drawing on neo-Marxist perspectives and postcolonial notions of “otherness”, this paper examines the relationship between incarceration of foreigners and economic conditions, economic threat, population change, and otherness. As hypothesized, country level data suggests that factors such as a free market economy, population change, economic competition, and a concentration of immigrants in the population are related to the level of imprisonment of foreigners. Implications for further research are also discussed.     

The role of the wedding place. Community context and marital timing in nineteenth and early twentieth century Netherlands

This study investigates how community characteristics influenced the timing of marriage of men and women in nineteenth and early twentieth century Netherlands on the basis of a large scale database consisting of marriage certificates covering five provinces of the Netherlands between 1840 and 1922. The results show the significance of religious context for understanding marriage timing in the nineteenth century. Living in a predominantly Catholic community resulted in a later marriage for both men and women, while living in a community that was dominated by Orthodox Protestants resulted in an earlier marriage, particularly for men. In addition, residence in a municipality with a high mobility, a large population size and a high birth rate speeded up marriage timing among both men and women. The results indicate that religious restraint and the urbanization and openness of places are, next to parental social class, of vast importance for understanding marriage timing. As our study only addressed those who married, future research will have to show whether the same mechanisms were at work for those that experienced permanent celibacy.     

The role of the wedding place. Community context and marital timing in nineteenth and early twentieth century Netherlands

This study investigates how community characteristics influenced the timing of marriage of men and women in nineteenth and early twentieth century Netherlands on the basis of a large scale database consisting of marriage certificates covering five provinces of the Netherlands between 1840 and 1922. The results show the significance of religious context for understanding marriage timing in the nineteenth century. Living in a predominantly Catholic community resulted in a later marriage for both men and women, while living in a community that was dominated by Orthodox Protestants resulted in an earlier marriage, particularly for men. In addition, residence in a municipality with a high mobility, a large population size and a high birth rate speeded up marriage timing among both men and women. The results indicate that religious restraint and the urbanization and openness of places are, next to parental social class, of vast importance for understanding marriage timing. As our study only addressed those who married, future research will have to show whether the same mechanisms were at work for those that experienced permanent celibacy.     

Exporting and importing criminality: Incarceration of the Foreign Born

Since previous studies have found that crime rates vary by immigrant group there is a need to dis‐aggregate immigrants by country of birth in order to obtain a more accurate representation of the relationship between migrants and crime. This study examines data from six countries (Australia, Canada, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and the U.S.A.) on the country of birth of their inmate populations. The following observations are reasonable conclusions from the data available. First, the percentages of each home country's inmate population that is foreign‐born varies remarkably. Second, in general foreign‐born inmates tend to come from regions outside the region within which the host country was located, though in most cases from regions that were proximate. Third, given the small number of countries reporting, it is intriguing that just a small number of countries and regions can account for such a high proportion of a home country's inmate population if one includes the numbers of a country's citizens who are housed in foreign prisons as part of that original country's inmate population. The paper concludes with a discussion of a number of policy implications that flow from these findings.     

The proper age to marry: social norms and behavior in nineteenth-century Netherlands.

"The article compares publicly discussed norms concerning the proper age at marriage for men and women in nineteenth-century Netherlands, and the actual trends present in the empirical evidence about marriage age. Medical professionals (the hygienists) expressed the belief that marriage at too young an age was damaging both to public hygiene and the family's health; other commentators stressed the connection between young marriages and poverty. Yet such norms were put forward vaguely, allowing other influences on marriage age to come into play. Consequently, data on marital behavior suggest considerable diversity in the population, with age at marriage varying strongly by class, sex, and region. Generally, age at marriage did not begin to fall until the period 1860-1870, and even after that decade class differences remained strong."     

生育权视角下的胎儿性别鉴定

我国出生人口性别比失衡的问题愈益严峻,法律规定"严禁非医学需要的胎儿性别鉴定".然而,人口性别比失衡的现象并未因此得以遏制.性别比失调问题有着复杂而深刻的原因,并非胎儿性别鉴定技术所致.站在生育权的视角上,性别知情权是公民生育权的应有之意.性别知情权并不损害他人权益、国家利益和社会公益,应得到法律的确认和保护.     

提高婚检率对策探究

婚检涉及社会公共利益,并不纯粹是个人问题;婚检是落实婚姻法的有效手段,发现疾病隐患的重要途径,减少出生缺陷和残疾发生的有效措施;婚检给男女双方以知情权,是提高婚姻质量、促进家庭幸福的重要保证。然强制婚检取消后,婚检率急剧下降。免费婚检的实行,使婚检率有一定提高,但幅度并不大。应对＂医学上认为不应当结婚的疾病＂的种类、范围作出具体规定;加大宣传力度;打破垄断;明确收费标准;强化服务意识、提高服务质量;优化婚检环境、规范婚检过程;保护当事人的隐私;加强对婚检机构的管理和监督。     

国家与婚姻:婚姻自由的宪法之维

作为宪法基本权利的婚姻自由,是指婚姻当事人享有自主地决定自己婚姻的权利,免受国家的非法干预与侵犯.婚姻当事人按照法律的规定,有权基于本人的意志,自主自愿地决定自己的婚姻问题,既不受国家的强迫、限制或其他方式的影响,也不受第三人的干涉和强制.我国法律规范中限制公民结婚和离婚的某些规定,与宪法婚姻自由基本权利是相冲突的,国家对婚姻自由限制只能是在宪法精神下基于合理的、正当的理由且只能由法律予以规定.婚姻自由是否可以包括同性婚姻近年来被少数群体呼吁,其法律理论需要从宪法平等的层面进行探讨.同性婚姻的法理学源于宪法平等而非婚姻法,即性的平等而非男女平等,同性婚姻如果需要国家的保护,首先需要对宪法平等权作扩张的解释,然后才有可能进入由法律规范调整的讨论视角.