Widowhood-related mortality in Scania,Sweden during the 19th century

In this article, mortality risks are empirically examined in connection with spousal bereavement in four parishes in Scania, southern Sweden, during the 19th century using duration analysis. The data are longitudinal and the inhabitants have been followed literally from the cradle to the grave. To simultaneously catch transitory (shock) and persistent (long-term) effects of widowhood on mortality of the surviving spouse, the Cox semiparametric proportional hazards model has been applied with time spent in widowhood as a time-dependent multiple factor. Widowers in general were found to face higher relative mortality risks than widows and the effect of bereavement decreased through time. The estimated relative risks for males were dependent on socioeconomic status and widowers classified as landless faced high relative risks. Quantitatively, the magnitude of our estimates was large in comparison with similar studies made on contemporary data.     

Infant mortality in Bremen in the 19th century

This article analyses the development of infant mortality in the port city of Bremen within a disaggregated framework, using the available material from civil birth and death registers, as well as the census returns for 1862, 1871, 1885, 1895, and 1905. The analysis focuses on a number of factors that affected infant mortality, including breast-feeding, female labor-force participation, social class, and migrant status. Particular attention is paid to the age structure of infant mortality in relation to stillbirths and reproductive mortality, as well as registered trends in neonatal and postneonatal mortality. The Bremen data also provide a basis for analyzing infant mortality by cause of death and seasonality. By incorporating disaggregated demographic and socioeconomic data, the authors are able to offer some new insights into the determinants of urban infant mortality trends in the 19th century.     

Migration of rural families in 19th century southern Sweden. A longitudinal analysis of local migration patterns

Most research on historical migration patterns has focused on more long-range migration processes such as rural–urban, interregional, or intercontinental flows, neglecting the more local migration patterns, which could also have a profound impact on the rural preindustrial economy. This article analyzes the migration of rural families in 19th century southern Sweden using a longitudinal data set at the microlevel. The analysis shows a rather high mobility of families, the overwhelming majority of whom migrated very short distances. Factors determining the migration decision of these families included access to land and social networks and family composition as well as family type. The results clearly show that migration was an important part of the lives of preindustrial families and that the new migration pattern emerging in the second half of the 19th century, when rural–urban as well as international migration increased considerably, was not so much the result of higher mobility in general but rather a response to changing incentives making long distance migration more attractive.     

Marriage relationships among households in the mid 19th century Tama,Japan

This paper studies the formation of marriage relationships between households in 19th century, Tama, Japan. Previous studies on marriage market or partner selection in the Japanese past tended to rely either on information from a single village in case of statistical analysis, or on collection of oral histories. By using the information from a household register that covers 35 villages, and applying a method of social network analysis, this paper goes beyond the limitation of previous studies. Our empirical results show that there was a tendency for socioeconomic homogamy and endogamy (within kinship and within village) among peasants in the mid 19th century Tama, Japan.     

Basque women and urban migration in the 19th century

A study of reconstituted families reveals that in the 19th century, Basque women from propertied families appear to have migration patterns different from their brothers and from sharecroppers' daughters. When these women could not inherit the family property or marry an heir in the village, they frequently chose the urban option rather than emigration to America, often remained single, mainly took unskilled jobs, and returned to the villages of their birth upon retirement. Those who married in the cities did so to maintain or improve their social status through endogamous or exogamous marriages. Examples of differing Basque inheritance practices among the moderately wealthy – the traditional firstborn versus one of the younger siblings of either sex – are offered. The case study of S–M family illustrates women's rural and urban migration trends over three generations.     

Frequency,timing and intensity of remarriage in 19th century Flanders

The article addresses the belief that the Early Modern period and the early 19th century were characterized by “many” remarriages. The confusion in the analysis, however, between proportion and intensity has led much research down the wrong track. The evolution in remarriage intensity and in some other sociodemographic remarriage characteristics was measured for the period 1800–1913 in Leuven, Aalst, and Bierbeek—three areas with different socioeconomic structures and cultural climates. Comparison of the age-specific ratios shows that the remarriage probability of widowed people was often lower than first-marriage probability of those not previously married, even in the first half of the 19th century. In so far as our data are representative of the Early Modern period, the claim that “many” remarriages took place then must be put into perspective. In fact—with the exception of young widowers—fewer remarriages than first marriages often occurred. The proportion of remarriages fell from 20–25% in the first half of the 19th century to 10–15% by the end of the century. The most frequently occurring remarriage type was that between a widower and an unmarried woman; the least common was between a widower and a widow. An additional cultural factor was that from approximately the mid-19th century on, first marriage was so central to the development of a private social environment and was so highly valued that a watered-down version, in the form of remarriage, was held in low esteem and even rejected.     

Frequency,timing and intensity of remarriage in 19th century Flanders

The article addresses the belief that the Early Modern period and the early 19th century were characterized by “many” remarriages. The confusion in the analysis, however, between proportion and intensity has led much research down the wrong track. The evolution in remarriage intensity and in some other sociodemographic remarriage characteristics was measured for the period 1800–1913 in Leuven, Aalst, and Bierbeek—three areas with different socioeconomic structures and cultural climates. Comparison of the age-specific ratios shows that the remarriage probability of widowed people was often lower than first-marriage probability of those not previously married, even in the first half of the 19th century. In so far as our data are representative of the Early Modern period, the claim that “many” remarriages took place then must be put into perspective. In fact—with the exception of young widowers—fewer remarriages than first marriages often occurred. The proportion of remarriages fell from 20–25% in the first half of the 19th century to 10–15% by the end of the century. The most frequently occurring remarriage type was that between a widower and an unmarried woman; the least common was between a widower and a widow. An additional cultural factor was that from approximately the mid-19th century on, first marriage was so central to the development of a private social environment and was so highly valued that a watered-down version, in the form of remarriage, was held in low esteem and even rejected.     

Criminal superstition, pregnancy and infants at the turn of the 19th century

Around 1900, various crimes were still caused by criminal superstition. Criminologists like Hans Gross, Albert Hellwig and August L?wenstimm were engaged in the exploration of this topic aiming at the complete explanation of criminal behaviour linked to superstition. Crimes against pregnant women and infants are particularly good examples to illustrate the problems arising from crimes motivated by superstition. When assessing superstition under scientific and legal aspects, the criminologists applied different approaches, although positivistic rationalization was the most common tendency. In the forensic and legal evaluation of crimes related to superstition the problematical questions were whether the perpetrator was criminally responsible and how the offence was to be legally qualified. In many cases, criminals motivated by superstition were treated with more lenience.     

Criminology and superstition at the turn of the 19th century

Criminology, which institutionalised at university level at the turn of the 19th century, was intensively engaged in the exploration of superstition. Criminologists investigated the various phenomena of superstition and the criminal behaviour resulting from it. They discovered bizarre (real or imagined) worlds of thought and mentalities, which they subjected to a rationalistic regime of interpretation in order to arrive at a better understanding of offences and crimes related to superstition. However, they sometimes also considered the use of occultist practices such as telepathy and clairvoyance to solve criminal cases. As a motive for committing homicide superstition gradually became less relevant in the course of the 19th century. Around 1900, superstition was accepted as a plausible explanation in this context only if a psychopathic form of superstition was involved. In the 20th century, superstition was no longer regarded as an explanans but an explanandum.     

Family breakdown and the ‘Welfare Child’ in 19th and 20th century Britain

This article traces new cycles of interest in past children as distinct from past childhood. Recent work highlighting that a conceptualisation of childhood existed even in periods with few written records closes the chapter begun by Philippe Ariès in 1960. Instead, there has been a new surge of interest in children on the edges of family life, as well as children in similarly liminal positions between the worlds of adults and children: runaways, delinquents and orphans. Several themes in the literature are identified, based on the conflicting ideas of ‘body/mind’, ‘victim/threat’, ‘needs/rights’. It is noted that researchers are using more imaginative ways of reaching the lived experience of children than the family or institutional framework, and that an increasing link is drawn between historical and modern concerns such as child abuse and the care of ‘at risk’ children.     

Succession strategies in the Pyrenees in the 19th century: The Basque case

Basque customs in the Old Regime dictated the traditional succession rules of aînesse intégrale, which entitled the first-born male or female child to inherit all family assets (house and land) upon marriage. He or she was then to cohabit with the parents as a stem family, thus securing the transition and continuity of the house. With the implementation of the Civil Code in the 19th century, these ancient succession practices were abolished, forcing families to partition their assets equally among their children. Family reconstitution, succession records, and land registers of the 19th century indicate that, despite the new law, Basque families circumvented the law to transmit their property to one child, thus avoiding partitioning and securing continuity of the house. To perpetuate their ancient succession practices, families elaborated new strategies, showing flexibility toward traditional practices (especially aînesse intégrale) and making concessions to the heir or heiress, spouse, and siblings. They adapted the customs to the new law while maintaining the most essential prerogatives of ancient family traditions (single inheritance) for the survival of the “house system”.     

Kinship,ritual kinship and political milieus in an alpine Valley in 19th century

In my paper I will present some results about ritual kinship and political mobilization of popular groups in an alpine Valley: the Val de Bagnes, in the Swiss canton of Valais. There are two major reasons to choose the Val de Bagnes for our inquiry about social networks: the existence of sharp political and social conflicts during the 18th and the 19th century and the availability of almost systematic genealogical data between 1700 and 1900.The starting point of my research focuses on this question: what role did kinship and ritual kinship play in the political mobilization of popular groups and in the organization of competing factions? This question allows us to shed light on some other uses and meanings of ritual kinship in the local society. Was ritual kinship a significant instrument for economic cooperation? Or was it a channel for patronage or for privileged social contacts? The analysis highlights the importance of kinship and godparentage for the building of homogeneous social and political networks.If we consider transactions between individuals, the analysis of 19th century Val de Bagnes gives the impression of quite open networks. Men and women tried to diversify their relations in order to avoid strong dependency from powerful patrons. Nevertheless, when we consider the family networks, we can notice that most relations took place in a structured social space or a specific “milieu”, were intense contacts enhanced trust, although political allegiances and social choices were not fully predictable on the basis of such preferential patterns.In a politically conflictual society, like 19th century Bagnes, ritual kinship interacted with kinship solidarities and ideological factors shaping dense social networks mostly based on a common political orientation. Such milieus sustained the building of political factions, which show surprising stability over time. In this sense, milieus are important factors to understand political and religious polarization in 19th century Switzerland.     

Kinship,ritual kinship and political milieus in an alpine Valley in 19th century

In my paper I will present some results about ritual kinship and political mobilization of popular groups in an alpine Valley: the Val de Bagnes, in the Swiss canton of Valais. There are two major reasons to choose the Val de Bagnes for our inquiry about social networks: the existence of sharp political and social conflicts during the 18th and the 19th century and the availability of almost systematic genealogical data between 1700 and 1900.

The starting point of my research focuses on this question: what role did kinship and ritual kinship play in the political mobilization of popular groups and in the organization of competing factions? This question allows us to shed light on some other uses and meanings of ritual kinship in the local society. Was ritual kinship a significant instrument for economic cooperation? Or was it a channel for patronage or for privileged social contacts? The analysis highlights the importance of kinship and godparentage for the building of homogeneous social and political networks.

If we consider transactions between individuals, the analysis of 19th century Val de Bagnes gives the impression of quite open networks. Men and women tried to diversify their relations in order to avoid strong dependency from powerful patrons. Nevertheless, when we consider the family networks, we can notice that most relations took place in a structured social space or a specific “milieu”, were intense contacts enhanced trust, although political allegiances and social choices were not fully predictable on the basis of such preferential patterns.

In a politically conflictual society, like 19th century Bagnes, ritual kinship interacted with kinship solidarities and ideological factors shaping dense social networks mostly based on a common political orientation. Such milieus sustained the building of political factions, which show surprising stability over time. In this sense, milieus are important factors to understand political and religious polarization in 19th century Switzerland.     

The study of adolescence during the 20th century

The scientific study of adolescence in America during the 20th century is reviewed, beginning with the work of G. Stanley Hall. Recurring themes and shifts in focus spanning the last century are identified. Hall's ideas about normative turmoil have been replaced by the recognition that as they pass from childhood to adulthood adolescents may take a number of different paths, many of which are not tumultuous. There is now growing recognition that the definition of these paths and the timing of entry into and out of adolescence are dependent on societal and historical constraints.     

Public health measures against neonatal tetanus on the island of Vestmannaeyjar (Iceland) during the 19th century

The article presents a study of neonatal tetanus on the tiny island of Vestmannaeyjar (Iceland) during the 18th and 19th centuries. At an early date, Vestmannaeyjar was known for its high levels of mortality from neonatal tetanus. This appalling mortality is analysed, inter alia, on the basis of parish registers at the individual family level. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, more than three out of four newborns on the island died during the first 2 weeks of life. At the beginning of the 19th century, Icelandic and Danish authorities had already showed great interest in improving infant survival on Vestmannaeyjar. In 1827 a physician was appointed to the island and by the late 1840s the disease was successfully fought on the island. The achievement on Vestmannaeyjar is a good example of how the sanitary movement was able to bring about important improvements in infant survival long before the breakthrough of the bacteriological revolution.     

Marriage patterns among Lutherans from the parish of Trzebosz in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century

The aim of this study is to characterize marriage patterns in a rural parish of Trzebosz in the borderland between Greater Poland (Wielkopolska) and Silesia in the years 1855–1913. A total of 343 data on marriages were gathered from the parish registers. The percentage of Lutheran–Catholic marriages was calculated. The distribution of age at marriage by martial status was assessed. The intensity of endogamy and exogamy was calculated as well as the coefficients of exogamy and biological polygamy. The annual rhythm of marriages was determined. In Trzebosz mixed marriages accounted for 3.94% in 1855–1899 and 14% in 1900–1913. The average age of brides and grooms was 25.36 and 26.22 years, while of widows and widowers they were 37.26 and 42.35 years, respectively. The average age of brides and grooms declined over time. In 1855–1899 the levels of endogamy and exogamy outside the parish were 19% and 81%, respectively. In 1900–1913 exogamy outside the parish decreased to 62%, while endogamy increased to 37%. The average mating distances for all marriages and exogamous ones were 24 and 42 km, respectively, in 1855–1899, while for 1900–1913 the respective figures were 7.4 and 8.7 km. The coefficient of exogamy declined from 0.78 in 1855–1899 to 0.67 in 1900–1913, while the coefficient of biological polygamy grew from 1.19 to 1.30 between those periods. The religious factor, apart from an economic strategy, shaped the annual rhythm of marriage. The outflow of the parishioners from Trzebosz in the early 20th century led to its ageing.