“Error But Without Malice” in Defamation of Public Officials: The Value of Free Expression in International Human Rights Law

Government officials in various parts of the world use defamation to silence critics, but defamation liability may curtail freedom of expression on topics of public interest and undermine human rights generally. Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights guarantees freedom of expression unless a state can show need to protect individual reputation and acts proportionally. In its adjudication of complaints for violations of Article 19, and in its General Comment 34, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has crafted the principle that defamation liability may not be imposed if an erroneous statement about a public official was made in “error but without malice.” Although soft law, General Comment 34 represents the committee's most compelling articulation of the values animating freedom of expression in international human rights law, and chief among the values is the role played by free expression to promote realization of all human rights.     

国际人权与死刑──以国际人权法为线索的分析兼及中国的应对

国际人权法对死刑的态度经历了由放任到限制再到废除的转变。《世界人权宣言》对死刑以沉默显示放任;《公民权利与政治权利国际公约》等对死刑转向了限制;《旨在废除死刑的〈公民权利与政治权利国际公约〉第二议定书》等对死刑明令废除。中国现行死刑制度与国际人权法的要求尚存较大距离,应该采取必要的应对措施尽快缩短这一距离。     

经济、社会和文化权利国际救济机制的新突破——《经济、社会和文化权利国际公约任择议定书》述评

由于条约实施机制存在缺陷,《经济、社会和文化权利国际公约》所规定的社会权在国际层面一直得不到有效救济。这一状况对国际人权保护的连贯性和整体性产生了长久的负面影响。2008年12月10日,联合国大会通过了《（经济、社会和文化权利国际公约）任择议定书》。在缔约国报告程序之外,议定书还确立了个人来文程序、国家来文程序、调查程序三位一体的准司法性权利救济程序。这将会大大加强对个人社会权的国际保护,结束社会权与公民权国际保护不平衡的局面,进一步完善国际人权法体系,从而推动国际人权保护事业的发展。     

“Not to Disclose Information Sources”: Journalistic Privilege Under Article 19 of ICCPR

International law took a significant step in recent years toward protection of journalists' sources and newsgathering processes. The international law journalistic privilege previously had been upheld by international tribunals, but it was not until 2011 that the United Nations Human Rights Committee adopted an interpretation of freedom of expression that included journalistic privilege. The presence of the privilege within freedom of expression, as recognized in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is important for several reasons. As part of freedom of expression, the privilege may not be overcome without a showing of necessity and proportionality, is not subject to a margin of appreciation, and is entitled to full realization by the 168 nations that have signed and ratified ICCPR.     

WHAT DOES ACCESS TO JUSTICE REQUIRE? — OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO INVOKE THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

Persons with disabilities have a right to effective access to justice under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD). This article provides insights on the parameters of that right, including a close examination of the history and text of Article 13, which directly addresses access to justice and other relevant UNCRPD provisions. In addition to the UNCRPD, this article discusses implementation guidance from the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, including its guidelines for State Party reports and jurisprudence. The initial reports by eleven States Parties — Argentina, Azerbaijan, China, Costa Rica, Croatia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Hungary, Mexico, Peru and Turkmenistan — are also considered. The Committee’s feedback regarding implementation of Article 13 by these eleven States parties is critiqued for being limited and inconsistent. This article then attempts to clarify what effective access to justice actually requires. It does so by focusing on the insights that can be drawn from implementation of Article 13 since the UNCRPD was adopted as well as implementation guidance from the Conference of States Parties, the International Disability Alliance, the World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry and the National Center for Access to Justice. This article concludes with recommendations on how the Committee can improve its guidance on access to justice to help ensure that equal rights will not be illusory for persons with disabilities.     

心智障碍者监护理论争议与发展方向——以《残疾人权利公约》第12条为视角

心智障碍者即是成年人监护制度的主要适用对像,也是《联合国残疾人权利公约》第12条的调整对象。《公约》第12条倡导的尊重心智障碍者人权和自由的观点受到国际社会的普遍认可与尊重,但《公约》第1号《一般性意见》对《公约》第12条的解释确属脱离实际,导致我国国内对成年人监护的争论此起彼伏,无行为能力制度是否有存在的必要、监护是否应与行为能力相脱离、是否应以支持决策全面取代监护是各方争议的核心问题。在厘清争议的前提下,未来应通过司法解释对《民法总则》的相关内容做出细化规定。     

从《残疾人权利公约》反思国际人权机制

2007年3月起开放签字的《残疾人权利公约》是联合国体系在保护人权领域的最新努力。与以往的多数人权条约一样,《残疾人权利公约》列举了具体权利、构划了报告体制,同时通过任择议定书设计建立一套来文制度。这意味着在国际人权法上又添加了一套体制。虽然从权利保护发展本身看,这一公约的出现丰富了联合国体系的人权保护内容,但是从国际法治的理念上看,它是国际法不成体系的特征的继续与延伸,本质上不仅无益于国际法治的完善,而且有可能进一步提高国际法维护人权各个环节的成本。现阶段有必要考虑将包括人权、环境等领域的规范进行编纂,将相应机构进行整合,以推进国际法治的目标。     

Supranational Fundamental Rights or Primacy of Sovereignty?

This analysis explores in detail various aspects of the possible legal impact of ‘British’ Protocol No 30 (the so‐called opt‐out from the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights). On the basis of a legal appraisal, it concludes that the Protocol is not in any way to be understood as a substantial derogation from the standard of protection of fundamental rights in the EU or as an ‘opt‐out’ from the Charter in a substantial sense. Nevertheless, its significance is definitely not to be underestimated. Its adoption as a source of primary law enshrines a legally binding interpretation of the Charter and, in particular, an interpretation of its horizontal provisions. In Article 1(2) and Article 2, the Protocol in fact confirms that the application of the Charter cannot lead to a change in the existing competencies framework. These provisions are of a declaratory nature and apply to all Member States. In Article 1(1), the Protocol is of a constitutive nature since it rules out an extensive interpretation of what can be considered national legal acts adopted in the implementation of EU law only for those States signed up to the Protocol. This specifically means that if, in the future, as part of the application of the Charter, the Court of Justice of the EU (ECJ) has a tendency to subsume a certain area of national legislation under the ‘implementation of Union law’ outside the field of implementing standards, in the spirit of the Ellinki Radiophonia Tileorassi judgment (and subsequently allow their reviewability with respect to their conformity with the Charter), such action would be admissible only for those Member States that have not acceded to the Protocol. However, the Protocol cannot exclude the continued application of the general principles of law instead of the positively constituted fundamental rights in the Charter by the ECJ.     

《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》适用于香港的法理依据

《香港特别行政区基本法》第39条规定,《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》适用于香港的规定继续有效。《公约》在香港继续适用的理论基础不是传统意义上的条约继承,也不是国际法上的禁止反言原则,而是"一国两制"理论在条约继承上的一种制度创新。《香港特别行政区基本法》在处理人权条约的继承方面既体现了国家主权、高度自治这一根本原则,又特别重视连续性原则和人权保护原则。     

论迁徙自由立法的例外规定

迁徙自由原则一直以来都是国际移民法的重点原则，也是世界公认的一项基本人权，对迁徙自由权可以从一般性规定。限制性规定和保护性规定三个方面来阐述，其中后两者即例外性规定是政策制定与司法实践过程中的焦点，其目的是为了更有效地保障公民的迁徙自由权。本文通过对《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》，各国特别是美德两国关于迁徙自由权限制性，以及限制之限制规定的立法模式和立法内容的分析，给例外规定的中国化提供了借鉴，以更全面地保障中国公民的迁徙自由权。     

Health and human rights: challenges of implementation and cultural change

The author identifies the evolution of discourse about human rights to health in medical law, health law and public health law, as well as in major international instruments. He emphasises the importance of General Comment No 14 on Art 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. He argues that its breadth but also its specificity in terms of accountable benchmarks and measures of health service provision are likely to frame discourse on "rights to health" in the succeeding years. He identifies the need for translation of the rhetoric in such instruments into meaningful and patient-informed data so that it becomes possible to compare and contrast advances (or otherwise) in rights to health within and among different countries.     

The Understanding and Interpretation of the ICCPR in the Context of China's Possible Ratification

Chna signed the International Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights in 1998 and is preparing for its ratification. In consideringthe ratification, the knowledge of how to correctly interpretand understand the Covenant is crucial. In monitoring the implementationof the Covenant, the Human Rights Committee has used variousmechanisms and rules in interpreting the Covenant to meet thespecific object and purpose of the Covenant, and thus developeda rich jurisprudence with respect to the interpretations ofthe Covenant. However, the interpretations of the Covenant bythe Committee have not been adequately taken into account inthe research done by Chinese scholars on the Covenant. The researchon the interpretations therefore must be further strengthenedin order to more effectively facilitate the ratification processin China.     

A simpler solution for offshoring personal information?

This article looks at the European Commission’s recent revisions to the controller-processor model clauses to allow the transfer of personal data to processors and sub-processors based outside of the EEA. These new sub-processing provisions are the subject of a recent opinion by the Article 29 Working Party that is both helpful and is likely to ease the use of these clauses. However, many of the other problems associated with the use of these clauses remain, especially the lengthy and bureaucratic filing and approval requirements mandated under many national laws.     

《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》中公正审判权的保留问题探析

《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》的执行机构人权事务委员会从提出保留的限制条件、保留是否有效的判断机关以及无效保留的法律后果等三个方面对公约的保留问题表明了自己的态度。为了不至于违反公约规定的国际义务,在批准公约时,有些国家根据自己的情况对公正审判权提出了保留。考虑到我国的实际情况,我国在批准公约时,应当对公正审判权的适用范围和得益于较轻刑罚的权利提出保留。     

资讯＆数据

中共中央办公厅、国务院办公厅近日印发了《关于领导干部报告个人有关事项的规定》，并发出通知，要求各地区各部门认真贯彻执行。通知指出，《规定》针对当前领导干部廉洁自律方面出现的新情况新问题，进一步规范了领导干部报告个人有关事项的制度。这是贯彻落实党的十七大和十七届四中全会精神、推进惩治和预防腐败体系建设的重要体现，是促进领导干部廉洁自律、回应社会关切的重要举措和制度创新，对加强领导班子和干部队伍建设、推进反腐倡廉制度建设特别是健全党内监督制度具有十分重要的意义．     

略论民法典总则的内容构造

以《德国民法典》为代表的采总则——分则结构的各国民法典中,民法总则的内容大同小异。在借鉴国外立法经验、吸收当代民法研究成果的基础上,我国民法典总则的内容应包括：（1）一般规定;（2）权利主体;（3）权利客体;（4）法律事实;（5）权利保护。在民法典总则中,不宜设取得时效和民事责任的一般规定。     

Incompatibility of the Digital Economy Act 2010 subscriber appeal process provisions with Article 6 of the ECHR

Through case-law research, this paper critically assesses the compatibility of the Digital Economy Act 2010 (DEA) subscriber appeal process provisions (Section 13 of the DEA) with Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Drawing on the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) case-law, Ofcom's Initial Obligations Code (the Code), and the DEA judicial review decision, namely, BT PLC and Talk Talk PLC v Secretary of State for Business Innovation and Skills and others, this paper focuses on the three Strasbourg Court principles of equality of arms, admissibility of evidence, and presumption of innocence, in an effort to determine whether Section 13 of the DEA infringes them, and whether this constitutes a breach of a subscriber's right to a fair trial under Article 6 of the ECHR. The paper examines these three ECtHR principles. It contrasts such principles with the Code's provisions, and considers the compatibility of Section 13 of the DEA with Article 6 of the ECHR. It concludes that the DEA subscriber appeal process provisions do indeed infringe these principles, thus constituting a violation of subscribers' right to a fair trial. It also recommends that the UK government start taking seriously human rights in general, and Article 6 of the ECHR in particular.     

Mental health and human rights: the role of the law in developing a right to enjoy the highest attainable standard of mental health in Australia

Article 12(1) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights requires governments to recognise "the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health". However, the traditional focus of mental health laws on the treatment and detention of those with low-prevalence serious mental illnesses may have skewed resources such that the development of a right to mental health for all individuals with mental illnesses has been stymied. In Australia, a number of inquiries and reports have found that while legislation has been changed to comply with human rights principles, access to mental health care and follow-up post-hospitalisation need critical attention. This article outlines a five-year project aimed at exploring how mental health laws can help develop and support a right to enjoy the highest attainable standard of mental health.     

Commons as possessions: The path to protection of the commons in the ECHR system

The ‘commons’ is not mentioned in the texts of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) or Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 (P‐1). This essay argues that ‘possessions’ — which does appear in the latter — should be interpreted by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) to protect commons against national governments' undue interferences. The argument comprises two parts. First, we analyse the polysemic term ‘possessions’ to show how the current understanding of this category is marred by flawed assumptions and by false dichotomies. Then, we propose an ‘ecological’ construction of legal relationships between subjects and objects. We find support in the ECtHR case law on Article 8. We argue this approach should be extended to Article 1 P‐1: once disentangled from possessive individualism and market paradigms, ‘possessions’ encompass the commons and the category offers a solid legal basis toward the justiciability in Strasbourg of privatisations.     

论GATT 1994第20条对中国加入议定书的可适用性——由“中国原材料出口限制措施案”引发的思考

GATT 1994能否适用于成员方加入议定书是WTO当前面临的一个制度性问题。"中国原材料出口限制措施案"的专家组报告拒绝了中国将GATT1994第20条适用于中国加入WTO议定书第11条第3款的主张。专家组报告的结论存在若干可以商榷之处:采用了过于僵化、机械的文本解释规则,而忽视了其他解释规则和方法;对出口配额与出口税的区别对待损害了WTO法的统一性,也违背了WTO及其成员的基本立场;没有客观看待《议定书》与GATT1994及WTO其他协定之间的关系,错误地割裂了WTO各协定之间的逻辑联系。中国应在提出上诉的同时要求WTO部长会议或总理事会就GATT1994与成员方加入议定书的关系问题作出权威解释。