Personal problems of adolescents and their relationship to peer acceptance and sex-role identity

The Mooney Problem Checklist (MPCL), Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and a series of sociometric rating scales were administered to four groups of adolescents (40 males and 48 females from grade 8—average age = 13.5 years; 39 males and 37 females from grade 12—average age = 17.5 years). The total number of problems reported and the number in many of the 11 areas of the MPCL were fewer in the older group of males than the other three groups. As the number of problems was expected to decrease with age, it was proposed that females' problem level was maintained at a high level by pressures to conform to a feminine sex-role identity. This speculation was based on the findings that females became more stereotyped (more feminine, less masculine) with age and that femininity was significantly related to the number of problems for females. Although masculinity and peer group acceptance were expected to relate negatively to the number of problems, none of the groups supported the prediction for masculinity, and only the younger males confirmed the hypothesis for peer acceptance.This research was conducted by the first author as an empirical thesis project in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Bachelor of Arts (Honours) at Macquarie University in 1979. The project was supervised by the second author and Associate Professor J. K. Collins.Received B. A. (Honours in Psychology) from Macquarie University in 1979. Major interest is adjustment in adolescence.Received B. S. (Honours in Statistics) from Sydney University in 1965; B. A. (Psychology) from Oxford in 1968; M. A. and Ph.D. (Psychology) from University of Michigan in 1973. Major interests are sex roles and psychometrics.     

Escaping loneliness in adolescence: The case for androgyny

The purpose of the present study was to assess the relationship between sex-role orientation and loneliness in adolescence. Two hundred and twenty-five junior and senior high school students completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory Short Form (Bem, 1981) and the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell et al., 1978). Results indicated that androgynous individuals were significantly less lonely than masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated individuals. An assessment of the independent contributions of masculinity and femininity indicated that both masculinity and femininity significantly predicted loneliness. Additional analysis revealed that the impact of sex-role orientation on loneliness varied by sex and tended to be greater for males than females. The need to further examine the relationship between androgyny, sex-role development, and adjustment in adolescence is discussed.Received his M.S. and Ph.D. in human development and family studies from The Pennsylvania State University. Research interests are social competence, interpersonal skills development, and adjustment.     

Identity and intimacy: An initial investigation of three theoretical models using cross-lag panel correlations

This investigation specified three models regarding the association between identity and intimacy formation and investigated their potential validity using a longitudinal cross-lag panel design. Seventy-one males and 71 females completed identity and intimacy measures on two occasions over a 5-week period. The primary findings are (1) individuals with a clear sense of identity are more likely, 5 weeks later, to have a more advanced sense of intimacy for both sexes when sex-role identification is removed from gender comparisons; (2) sex-role orientation mediates the identity/intimacy association, while for females, a masculine orientation is associated with a pattern similar to that observed for either masculine- or feminine-oriented males; and (3) femininity is associated with a more fused connection between identity and intimacy for females. This report provides an initial investigation studying the identity/intimacy association during late adolescence based on three theoretical perspectives. Theoretical interpretations and conclusions are offered.Partial support for this project was provided by grants to the second author from the Utah State University Agricultural Experiment Station and the Office of Research, Utah State University. Approved as journal paper No. 3917.Research interests are adolescent identity development in the family context, adolescent sexuality, and sex-role development.Research interests focus on personality and social development during adolescence.     

Sex role strain among kibbutz adolescents and adults: A developmental perspective

In spite of a commitment to equality, the kibbutz is a male-dominated society with highly differentiated sex roles. Has this gap between ideals and reality created sex role strain for kibbutz-born adolescents and adults? Previous kibbutz studies have suggested that sex role strain may be the most intense among adult kibbutz women. Based on Erik Erikson's developmental model, however, we hypothesized that adolescent females would experience significantly greater sex role strain than other kibbutz members, including adult women. Adolescent and adult males and females were tested using Loevinger's ego development test. The sex role items of the test were used to construct a new measure of sex role strain. The global index included the following submeasures: avoidance of sex role issues; expression of intellectual, emotional, or behavioral sex role conflict; and evaluative attitudes toward male roles and female roles. Significant cohort or sex differences were found on the global index and on all submeasures of sex role strain. The findings indicate that sex role strain is greatest among adolescent females, followed by adolescent males. Adult kibbutz women, however, are significantly more likely to focus their dissatisfaction in the area of actual role behavior rather than in terms of how they intellectually conceptualize kibbutz sex roles, as is the case for adolescents and adult males.     

Sex roles,personality, and intellectual abilities in adolescents

The relationship between personality variables associated with sex roles and the cognitive variables of math and verbal ability was examined in three groups of adolescents. Masculinity and femininity of interests, behavioral traits, and values were examined using three inventories: the Femininity Scale from the California Psychological Inventory, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, and the Study of Values. Results indicate that there is some evidence for a positive relationship between masculine traits and values and math ability, and feminine traits and values and verbal skills (for both sexes). Certain traits indicative of maturity were found to be positively related to both high math and high verbal scores, while certain highly sex-typed traits and interests were found to be negatively related to both cognitive variables. A different relationship for males and females was found between high intellectual scores and indicators of self-concept and emotional well-being. The differing relationship between each of the three personality variables indicative of sex roles (e.g., interests, values, traits) and cognitive variables emphasizes the need to view masculinity and feminity, as well as sex-role, as a complex combination of the many different aspects of sex roles as they exist in our society.This article is based on a doctoral dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology, The Johns Hopkins University.Received Ph.D. in psychology from Johns Hopkins University. Main research interests are gifted adolescents, sex-role development, and personality development.     

The relationship of sex role to physical and psychological health

This study examined the relationship of sex-role typology, medical and psychiatric symptomatology, and personality functioning in adolescents. Seventy-nine males and 101 females with an average age of 18.3 were administered the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), Offer Self Image Questionnaire (OSIQ), Self Rating Depression Scale (SRDS), and Cornell Medical Index (CMI). In comparison to males, females reported significantly more medical and psychiatric symptomatology, including depression. Females were also found to have more concern and empathy for others and a better developed superego. They reported greater involvement in making future plans and were more conservative in their sexual attitudes. Sex-role typology yielded no significant differences on the medical and psychiatric scales, but consistent differences were found on the OSIQ, a measure of adolescent personality functioning. In general, the results indicated that androgynous teenagers in every case differed from the undifferentiated ones, with the masculine and feminine groups occupying a mid-position. Androgynous individuals always showed a more favorable adjustment. Undifferentiated individuals had a poorer defensive structure, less adequate coping mechanisms and affective integration, more confusion about body boundaries, and more difficulty in object relations. Androgynous individuals, in short, possessed adaptive capabilities and resources, such as effective coping techniques, emotional integration, communication skills, and a well-defined self-concept (i.e., ego strength and a high level of psychological integration). Since these results were obtained on a measure constructed solely to assess adolescent functioning, it seems possible to screen and identify adolescents who may be entering adulthood lacking the emotional, social, and occupational capacity to function in an optimal fashion.Received Ph.D. from University of Rhode Island. Current interests are adjustive dimensions of sex role in adolescents, adolescent psychopathology and psychotherapy.Currently pursuing a doctorate in human development at the University of Maryland. Holds an M.A. in clinical psychology from George Mason University. Interests include sex-role development, determination of psychological test parameters of anorexia nervosa.Completing an M.A. in clinical psychology at George Mason University. Besides sex-role and social dimensions, interests center on adolescent psychotherapy.     

Sex differences in the resolution of the identity crisis

Based on Erikson's view of the importance of inner space in feminine identity, researchers have added an interview on premarital sex to the standard ego identity interview on occupation, religion, and politics used for males. This study was designed to investigate the relative importance of premarital sexual ideology for males and females, as well as sex differences in identity status on occupation, religion, and politics. Marcia's semi-structured ego identity status interview was given to 70 male and 70 female college students, with premarital sex questions included for both sexes. Consistent with Erikson's theory, females were more likely than males to have experienced a sexual identity crisis, whereas males were very likely to be foreclosed in this area. Males as well as females were more likely to be committed about sex than about any other area. In all areas except sex, female identity followed basically the same pattern as male identity.Received her Ph.D. from State University of New York at Buffalo. Current research interests are ego identity and human sexuality.Received his Ph. D. from State University of New York at Albany. Current research interests are mental health evaluation and behavior therapy.     

Ego identity formation in middle adolescence

Assumed determinants of ego identity were investigated in this study using sophomore, junior, and senior high school males and females. Subjects were administered the Marcia Ego Identity Status Scale and measures of sex-role identification, personality development, psychological functioning, self-concept, and parental socialization practices. Data analyses, using a median split on identity score, showed that high-identity adolescents obtained more positive scores on sex-role identification, personality development, psychological adjustment, and self-concept than low-identity adolescents. Socialization practices also differed for the two groups. The sex differences which emerged were congruent with the identity literature. Overall, the data supported Erikson's theory of ego identity development.This study was funded by Grant No. 791-01-010-502 from the Senate Research Committee, University of Nebraska at Omaha.Received his Ph.D. in developmental psychology from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Major interests are in the area of social and personality development in children and adolescents.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, September 1975.     

Adolescents' perceptions of the nature of their communication with parents

This study examines the effects of the age and sex of adolescent and the sex of parent upon adolescents' perceptions of the nature of their communication with each parent. Two hundred and ninety-six adolescents aged 13–17 years completed a communication schedule, rating 14 content areas along six process dimensions: frequency of conversation, initiator, levels of recognition of adolescents' opinion, self-disclosure, domination, and levels of satisfaction. Multivariate analyses of variance were conducted separately for each process dimension. Frequency ratings revealed that adolescent females of all ages reported talking more often with mothers than did adolescent males. Adolescent males, however, believed they talked more often than did females with fathers about interests, sexual issues, and general problems. Mothers were seen to initiate more conversations than fathers on a wide range of topics. Mothers were also perceived as more likely to recognize and accept the adolescents' opinions. Adolescent females believed they disclosed more to mothers than fathers, but males believed they disclosed equally to both parents. Males disclosed more to fathers than did females about their sexual or other problems, while females disclosed more often overall to their mothers than did males. Adolescent males were equally satisfied with their discussions with both parents, but females were more satisfied about conversations with mothers rather than fathers. In sum, the results suggest that mothers' more frequent initiation of discussions with their younger adolescents and their greater recognition of their opinions lead to older adolescents interacting more with mothers than fathers.Ph.D. in Social Psychology, University of Queensland. Her current interests are in the areas of marital and family communication, adolescence, and personal relationships.Ph.D. in Social Psychology, Australian National University, with research interests in adolescence, marital communication, and childless couples.     

Adjustment and sex-role orientation in adolescence

The purpose of the present study was to reexamine the relationship between sex-role orientation and self-esteem in adolescence. One hundred and six senior high school students completed the Rosenberg self-esteem measure (Rosenberg, 1965) and two measures of sex-role orientation, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, Short Form (BSRI; Bem, 1981), and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire Short Form (PAQ; Spence et al., 1975). The relationship between sex-role orientation and self-esteem was found to vary depending on the sex-role measure employed. Results of the BSRI revealed that androgynous individuals had higher levels of self-esteem than masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated adolescents. PAQ results indicated that androgynous individuals had higher levels of self-esteem than feminine and undifferentiated individuals. When the independent contributions of masculinity and femininity were assessed, both BSRI and PAQ masculinity and femininity significantly predicted self-esteem. Analyses also revealed that the effects of sex-role orientation on self-esteem varied by sex across both the BSRI and PAQ. Implications of the present findings for previous work on sex-role development in adolescence are discussed.Received Ph.D. in human development and family studies from Texas Tech University. Present research interests are sex-role orientation and its relationship to self-esteem, adjustment, and shyness in adolescents and young adults.     

Sex differences in sex-role conceptions and family orientation of high school students

Studies of college freshmen find that men are more sexist in their attitudes than women. Does this hold also for high school students? This paper reports the relationship of (1) sex-role attitudes to selected school and family characteristics and (2) attitudes toward family life to sex-role conceptions for women and men. The study is based on 529 students in grades 9 to 12 attending four high schools. The findings show that males are more sexist than females and Blacks more so than Whites. Women who are bright, from upper class backgrounds, and whose mothers work are more equalitarian in sex-role conceptions. For men, family background is unimportant, but attending an elite public school seems to foster equalitarian sex-role conceptions. Men's sex-role attitudes are harder to explain than women's, and, unlike women, their role attitudes have little connection to their family orientation.     

Sex-role identification of normal adolescent males and females as related to school achievement

The historical view of masculinity/femininity posited essentially bipolar opposites, with the presence of one set of characteristics precluding the other. More recent studies of sex-role stereotypes have defined sexual orientation within clusters of socially desirable attributes which males and females perceive as differentiating males from females. This view negates the contention that psychological sex roles are composed of bipolar opposites, and concludes that the constructs of masculinity and femininity are independent dimensions rather than a single bipolar dimension. Little is known about the sex-role functioning of adolescents, yet it is during adolescence that qualitative shifts occur in interpersonal relationships and concurrent changes occur in cognitive functioning, with adolescents shifting toward hypothetical thinking and abstract ideal notions. In view of these changes, much can be learned about adult functioning by studying the sex-role perceptions of adolescents related to familial and social variables. This study examines the sex-role perceptions that adolescents hold of fathers, mothers, ideal males, ideal females, and selves. Differences exist between male and female adolescents, and significant linkages exist between sex-role identification and academic achievement.Received Ph.D. from Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. Interest is sex-role identification as related to social adaptation and achievement.Received Ph.D. from Catholic University, Washington, D.C. Interest is in behavior disorders in adolescence.     

Adolescent women's developing identity: A study of self-definition in the context of family relationships

This study generated adolescent women's perception of their identity in relation to family members spanning three generations and related these perceived relationships to their sex-role orientation. Subjects were 20 firstborn university women from intact families. The methodology used multiple sources of information, including open-ended interviewing procedures, rating scales, and standard research measures of sex-role identity. Significantly more constructs empirically differentiated family by generation than by sex. Congruence of young women with both the parent and grandparent generation, relative number of masculine stereotypes produced, and personality traits of males and females were significantly influenced by the presence of a brother in the sibling generation. There was no relationship between family constellation and sex-role orientation. Feminine women were significantly more congruent with other females in their family than androgynous women. There was a linear trend for androgynous women to be increasingly individuated across the generations.Received her Ph.D. from Yale University. Research interests include observation of children and families in natural settings, longitudinal research with at-risk infants, and rural consultation.Received her Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota. Research interests include development of social competence in family, school, and community environment.Received his Ph.D. from Yale University. Research interests include the socialization of values, professional development, and studies of the family in religious and ethnic community contexts.     

The effect of parental divorce on parent-adolescent separation

The purpose of this study was to identify variables that differentially affect parent-adolescent separation in subjects from separated vs subjects from intact families. The subjects were 318 introductory psychology students at the University of Manitoba who had already left home. They were given the Moving Out questionnaire as well as Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale. Contrary to our hypotheses, subjects from separated families did not experience more conflict when leaving home than subjects from intact families, and the type and amount of divorce-related conflict was not related to higher emotional separation or locus of control scores. However, it was found that as divorce-related conflict became more openly expressed, feelings of personal control increased and feelings about leaving home became more positive. Emotional separation scores were significantly higher for all males and for subjects from separated families. Also, females had a greater sense of external control than males.Research interests include separation, divorce, and fster parenting.Research interests include separation, divorce, and child development.     

Correlates of self-concept among black early adolescents

This study examines the self-concept of Black eighth-grade students from the Midwest in relation to Black acceptance, social intimacy, locus of control, and sex-role type. Twenty-eight students high in self-concept were compared with 31 students whose self-concept was low. As predicted, the high self-concept group scored higher than the low self-concept group in intimacy, internality, and acceptance of black identity. As also predicted, the high self-concept group had a significantly greater number of adolescents with masculine and androgynous sex roles than the low self-concept group; Black females with high self-concepts included a larger proportion of individuals with androgynous sex roles than low self-concept females. However, the prediction that high self-concept males would have a larger proportion of masculine sex roles than low self-concept males was not supported. The difficult situation of the low self-concept adolescents is discussed, along with the implications for intervention.On clinic internship at Smolian Psychiatric Clinic in Birmingham, Alabama. Major interests are clinical psychology and Black identity.Received Ph.D. in social psychology from the University of Colorado. Major interests are the development of intimacy and identity in adolescence and young adulthood.     

Sex differences in identity and intimacy development in college youth

This study examined sex differences in the processes of identity and intimacy development among college youth. Fifty males, and 50 females were given measures of identity status, intimacy status, and self-esteem. Males were found to focus on intrapersonal aspects of identity status, intimacy status, and self-esteem. Males were found to focus on intrapersonal aspects of identity, females on interpersonal aspects. The pursuit of various identity development pathways affected self-esteem differentially for the two sexes. More females than males were found to be intimate and the achievement of intimacy seemed more closely related to identity in males than in females. The findins were interpreted in the context of Eriksonian theory, which seemed more adequate in explaining male than female development.This article is based in part on the doctoral dissertation by James W. Hodgson in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy degree, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania.Received his Ph. D. in human development and family studies from The Pennsylvania State University. Current research interests include normative and dysfunctional development of late adolescence.Received her Ph.D. in social personality psychology from the University of Colorado. Current research interests include the developments of friendships and sex roles in adolescence.     

Male adolescent birth control behavior: The importance of developmental factors and sex differences

A survey of sex and birth control behavior of 51 male adolescents aged 15–17 was conducted utilizing a structured interview protocol. The purpose of the study was to describe male adolescent birth control behavior incorporating developmental issues, and to interpret the findings in light of what is known about female birth control behavior. Based on research with teenage females, three social influences were examined for their possible impact on male birth control behavior. A new operational definition ofmale effective birth control usage involving the effectiveness of the method and the consistency of its usage was developed. Findings similar to those obtained from research on females suggest that adolescent sexual partners may be the only direct social influence on adolescents' birth control usage. Results indicating differences from research with females suggest that in general: male birth control behavior is primarily self-oriented, males are more likely to be effective contraceptors with casual partners than with girl friends, males are more likely to communicate about sex and birth control with similar age peers than with family members and/or other adults, and that teen males view sex and birth control decisions as female decisions.He also conducts private psychotherapy, specializing in marital and family therapy. His doctorate from the University of Pennsylvania is from a unique joint program in marital/family therapy and sex education. His interests include sex roles and their impact on intimate relationships, adolescent development, and male sexuality. This article is based on his doctoral dissertation.faculty member in the Human Sexuality Program. Dr. Rose served as supervisor on Dr. Cohen's doctoral dissertation.     

Sex Differences in Self-Concept and Symptoms of Depression During the Transition to College

In an investigation of sex differences in adaptation to college, real and ideal self-concept and symptoms of depression were studied longitudinally in a sample of 287 students. Survey data were collected at a summer orientation and one semester into freshman year. No sex differences in self-concept were found before college, but males' real self-concept became more positive over the transition. Females were more depressed than males at both times, although depressive symptom scores increased in both sexes. Real self-concept scores were negatively correlated with depressive symptoms in both sexes at both times, while the discrepancy between real and ideal self-concepts was positively correlated with depressive symptoms among females before college and in both sexes midway through freshman year. A one-year follow-up revealed that females' real self-concept scores increased to match those of males by mid-sophomore year. These sex differences are discussed in relation to psychological development during adolescence.     

Why don't girls misbehave more than boys in school?

Reviewing research on sex differences in school misbehavior and delinquency, the author speculates on six possible reasons why girls appear to misbehave less than boys despite the fact that girls are characterized by more personal problems during adolescence. Several reasons including the possibility that girls' misbehavior is inaccurately reported are rejected as insufficient to account for the discrepancy between boys' and girls' misbehavior. On the basis of existing evidence, the author concludes that a combination of personal characteristics (i.e., high need for affiliation and low aggressiveness) and external pressures (parental and teacher expectations and attitudes) function to inhibit misbehavior in girls. Some indications that the situation is changing are reported.Received his Ph.D. in education from the State University of New York at Albany. Main interests include adolescent behavior problems, school discipline, and alternative schools.